Foss’s tenets of visual content analysis were applied to assess the rhetorical perspective of the images contained in the television spots utilized by the “No On 37” campaign in order to effectively communicate with the voting public to defeat the passage of Proposition 37. In order for an image to qualify as visual rhetoric, it must satisfy three characteristics as noted by Foss (2005). This was not the focus of this dissertation, but it will suffice to note that the images contained within this dissertation’s sample meet these requirements – first, the images constitute
symbolic action to communicate, next, the images require human action in terms of creation or interpretation and lastly there is an audience presence. The goal of the researcher is to highlight the features of the visual images contained in the sample in an effort to build theory in a more deductive, image-based manner by uncovering key elements embedded within these images.
As noted in Chapter 1, Foss (2005) described the three aspects of visual images which are the focus on this dissertation – namely (1) the nature of the image, (2) the function of the image and (3) the evaluation of the image. These aspects will be incorporated in the review of the sample’s television spots. The categories selected were not arbitrary but rather are useful in order to examine the nature, function and evaluation of the images at issue herein.
First, the nature of the image refers to the specific features of the visual elements – both those presented as well as the suggested elements (Foss, 2005). The presented elements refer to the major physical features of the image, such as its shape, size and materials used. The suggested elements refer to the concepts, ideas and themes as identified by the scholar as what a viewer would likely infer upon viewing the selected images. The nature of the image is useful in assisting the scholar to infer the likely meaning the image has for the intended audience.
Next, the function of the image allows the scholar to uncover how the image actually functions for the viewer. Foss (2005) clearly distinguishes this from the purpose of the image. “Once an image is created, it stand independent of its creator’s intention” (Foss, 2005, p. 147). Thus, the function of the image refers to the action the image is communicating, such as feelings of fear, uncertainty or even anger.
Lastly, the evaluation of the image allows the scholar to formulate an assessment based on one’s analysis of the images, such as whether the images are consistent and parallel with a
particular code of ethics thus lending itself to being ethical or ethically problematic (Foss, 2005). In so doing, the scholar is able to distinguish between the images when making such an evaluation.
In order to provide a comprehensive understanding of the “No On 37” campaign and its strategic communication, it is critical to closely examine not only the visual images but also the written discourse. This multimodal approach is unique and useful in this context. Regarding the written discourse, the researcher selected the news release as it is the most common tactic used in the practice of public relations (Bivins, 1999). The press release is then sent to media outlets in hopes of having such information shared with the public, thus increasing the credibility of the information as well as of that corporation or organization. The Process Model has been utilized to assess news release message content in several studies (Werder, 2006). The seven strategies identified by Hazleton and Long (1988) in the Process Model will be analyzed and the specific written messages will be coded according to those identifiable strategies. Those strategies are the following: (1) informative, (2) persuasive, (3) coercive – threat/punishment, (4) coercive – promise/reward, (5) facilitative, (6) bargaining, and (7) cooperative problem solving. The strategies are manifested in the form of the message which is embedded within that particular news release. Furthermore, the six functions were then used to develop such strategies when communicating with the public. The overlap between the strategies and functions is obvious, the functions being the following: (1) informative, (2) persuasive, (3) coercive, (4) facilitative, (5) bargaining and (6) cooperative problem solving. These categories are more descriptive rather than being judgmental as the information is assessed in terms of its accuracy and transparency.
The length of each news release, video and television commercial will be coded. For the written texts, the number of paragraphs will be coded as well. The prominent strategies used within each press release will be coded as well, according to the Process Model. Additional components such as additional strategies will also be identified, as well as key words and phrases which illustrate the specific strategy and tactic being utilized in each of the press releases contained in this sample. Additionally, the source of the communication, such as the media outlet and the specific placement of the item, will be identified and coded when available. The researcher did not arbitrarily create such categories, but rather these categories were originally identified by Hazleton and therefore are appropriate and relevant to assess the news release message content and strategies (Holtzhausen & Zerfass, 2015). At times, a particular strategy is used more often than the others, or a specific situation warrants the use of one or more of the identified strategies.
To effectively evaluate the sample, it is necessary to transcribe the qualitative date gathered. At the start, images were grouped based on their identifiable commonalities and differences. Next, the images were identified according to the specific public relations strategy to which it correlates, including thematic categories. Image captions were also coded, and the nature, function and evaluation were also identified and recorded. Later, an Excel spreadsheet was prepared to capture each image to then respond to the research questions of this study. Unexpected themes, if any, will also be recorded in the spreadsheet, as well as allusions,
dominant messages, overlooked messages and aesthetic qualities such as the color, text, captions, claims to truth and whether the message was ambiguous or contained/excluded complex
Upon review of the available visual images within the public relations “No On 37” campaign, this researcher anticipates that the function of the sample images create feelings of fear, uncertainty and even anger among the intended audience. Moreover, the evaluation of the images will likely identify how the images are congruent with the function of the images. Regarding the textual content analysis, it is likely the prominent public relations strategies utilized in the press releases (as contained in this sample) are the informative, persuasive an coercive strategies in order to effectively persuade the voting public to defeat the passage of Proposition 37. However, it remains possible that during evaluation and analysis of the data, additional prominent strategies and components may emerge.
4CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This section addresses the three research questions that constitute this study. Based on both the visual and textual analysis of the press releases and television spots, this writer explains which public relations strategies were commonly used and how the visual images were presented to determine whether “No On 37” is an example of an ethically problematic campaign violating the TARES Test. Research Questions 1a and 1b discussed in this chapter (and in this order) include the specific public relations strategies as well as the visual rhetorical messages, and examples are included to provide further context. Research Question 2 discussed herein offers an analysis of the legal distinction between commercial and political (non-commercial) speech and its impact on public relations campaigns such as the “No On 37” campaign.
The Five Principles for Ethical Persuasion, also known as the TARES Test, serves as the tool to determine whether a corporate advocacy campaign is ethical or ethically problematic. As
noted above in Chapter 1, this is the standard test used to evaluate persuasive communication. The five principles and duties of the TARES Test include the following: (1) the truthfulness of the message; (2) the authenticity of the persuader; (3) respect for the receiver of the message; (4) equity of the appeal; and (5) social responsibility which strives for the common good as the end result (Baker & Martinson, 2001).
Currently, the TARES Test does not address the inequalities of resources and the discrepancies within the power relationships in similar strategic communication campaigns. Moreover, when assessing the truthfulness of the message, it would be beneficial to take into account the transparency of the information provided in the strategic communication campaigns by the corporate speakers. An illustration is how the “No On 37” campaign provided facts to the audience in its promotional campaigns, but those facts were not from an independent unbiased third party. Rather, those were the facts prepared by the opponents of Proposition 37 who created the public relations campaign. Additionally, when the scientific studies the “No On 37” campaign relied upon are not disclosed to the audience, that reflects a lack of transparency as well, which communicates a lack of truthfulness of the message presented. This dissertation seeks to remedy these shortcomings and propose that additional factors be included in the TARES Test thus creating a more comprehensive tool for scholars to use when making such assessments and conducting research in this field.
In responding to this dissertation’s research questions, Hazleton and Long’s seven public relations strategies, as outlined in the Process Model, also serve as a useful tool to provide public relations professionals and advocates with an in-depth understanding of which strategies are most useful and how they can be improperly utilized to create an ethically problematic
campaign. The function of a message reveals how an organization communicates with the target audience. Hazleton and Long (1988) identified the following seven strategies, as discussed in detail in Chapter 1: (1) informative; (2) facilitative; (3) persuasive; (4) coercive –
threat/punishment; (5) coercive - promise/reward; (6) cooperative problem solving; and (7) bargaining. In utilizing these strategies, the corporate speaker has the power to interact within an environment that is not only audience-specific but also issue-specific, thus increasing its
effectiveness in persuading the audience to believe that particular corporate message.