Chapter 4. LEARNING, DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRUCTIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
4.9 CDT and Leadership Development
Empirical evidence suggests that CDT is beneficial to understanding and advancing leadership development. Several studies have demonstrated a link between constructive developmental stages and leader performance (Helsing and Howell, 2014; Strang and Kuhnert, 2009; Bartone et al, 2007; McCauley and Van Velsor, 2004; Eigel, 1998; Amey, 1991). Eigel (1998) assessed the mental capacity of 21 CEO’s and 21 middle managers of large, successful organisations with an average revenue of $5billion. He used the SOI and other performance assessments to evaluate a CEO’s effectiveness across a number of factors including their perceived ability to: (a) challenge existing processes, (b) inspire shared vision, (c) manage conflict, (d) solve problems, (e) delegate, (f) empower, and (g) build relationships. He found a correlation between increased mental complexity and business effectiveness. In later research, Eigel and Kuhnert (2005) demonstrate that Leadership Development Level (LDL) is a measurable characteristic that is characteristic of effective leaders. They found that individuals who lead from higher levels are more effective in a number of leadership competencies (e.g. leading change, managing
INVISIBLE LESS VISIBLE VISIBLE FOUNDATION MESO LEVEL SURFACE LEVEL
116
performance, creating a compelling vision). Eigel and Kuhnert (2005) argue that ‘until we target the goals of a leadership development program to the leader’s developmental capacity to lead, we will not equip companies to meet the demands of this new century’ (p.27).
Strang and Kuhnert (2009) conducted an empirical investigation to examine Constructive Developmental Theory as a framework for understanding leadership and as a predictor of 360-degree leader performance ratings. Specifically, they tested Leadership Developmental Level (LDL) as a predictor of leader performance and also compared the predictive ability of CDT compared to the Big Five personality dimensions using data from 67 management executives participating in an executive development program through a consulting firm in the US. The programme was designed to increase self-awareness and develop general leadership skills. They found that LDL predicted leader performance as reported by all 360 degree rater sources combined and also separately by superior, peer and subordinate raters. They also found that LDL appeared to capture an aspect of leadership distinct from and above and beyond that which is attributable to personality (they did not find support for extraversion or openness to experience as predictors of leader performance). They concluded that their study ‘consistently demonstrates the empirical legitimacy and potential utility of CDT as a framework for understanding the nature and structure of leadership’ (p.432). They suggest that future studies should attempt to demonstrate the utility of CDT in the workplace and that, at an individual level, CDT should be considered as a leadership development tool. Bartone et al (2007) conducted research on cadets at the United States Military Academy (USMA) in West Point over a three to four year period. They examined the underlying processes of psychosocial development and their possible relationship with leader development and performance among military officers. Noting that Kegan (1980) emphasises both psychological and social factors in development, Bartone et al (2007) refer to CDT as a psychosocial state. They used the Subject Object Interview to assess developmental stages with over 50 cadets as part of a larger longitudinal study of leader development at West Point. Their findings showed significant positive developmental growth over time for 47% of the cadets
117
with most of this growth occurring from sophomore to senior year. Further, they found that the advanced developmental stage (psychosocial development), as measured by Kegan’s SOI, predicted several peer, subordinate and supervisor ratings of cadet performance as leaders during future years. They state that their findings provide support for Kegan's CDT and suggest that greater attention be paid to the basic processes of human psychosocial development that can influence leader performance. Day et al (2014) note that this is one of the few empirical studies demonstrating change in the constructive developmental levels of participants and call for more research using CDT within leadership development research.
Table 4.4 below provides a summary of some of the empirical studies into leadership and leadership development using CDT in a variety of settings since the 1990’s. Their findings indicate that there is clear justification for applying CDT to the study of leadership development.
118 Table 4.4 - CDT and Leadership Research
Researcher Year Sector Research Method
Purpose of Research Findings
Amey 1991 Public sector – Liberal Arts Colleges Interviews – 5 colleges
To determine the leader's developmental level, the organisation's developmental level, and the leader's perceived effectiveness.
Results confirm that constituents can only perceive leadership effectiveness within a particular frame of reference determined by their cognitive development level.
Benay 1997 Food distribution SOI1 and MLQ2 and Defining Issues Test 8 leaders
Determine the range of transformational abilities.
Suggested a relationship between the cognitive developmental level of the leaders and their transformational leadership abilities.
Eigel 1998 Various SOI
21 CEO’s and 21 middle managers
Examined the stage of Development of CEO’s and Managers.
CEOs and Managers operating at later stages of development were more effective business leaders. Van Veslor and Drath 2004 Various SOI – 25 leaders Examined leaders at dependent and independent orders.
Found that individuals operating from the Dependent order and those operating from the Independent order experienced different elements of leadership roles as challenging.
1 SOI= Subject Object Interview
119
Researcher Year Sector Research Method
Purpose of Research Findings
Eigel and Kuhnert 2007 Various – telecoms, finance, non-profit SOI and 360- degree feedback scores collected 74 executives
Examined the relationships
between leadership
development level (LDL) and leadership effectiveness utilizing 360-degree feedback scores of individuals enrolled in an executive leadership development program.
Analysis revealed that LDL predicted leadership effectiveness across a number of sources including superiors, subordinates, and peers.
Harris and Kuhnert
2008 Various SOI and 360 degree
41 executives
Examined the relationship between the executives' order of development and the ratings they received on a 360-degree feedback instrument.
Order of development predicted the average ratings (across all raters) executives received on seven of the eight dimensions assessed by the instrument
Bartone et al 2007 Military Service (Public Sector) SOI and MD3 and CPR4 Longitudinal study over 4 years with cadets.
Examined the underlying processes of psychosocial development and their possible relation to leader
development and
performance for military officers.
Their findings lend support to Kegan’s theory and suggest greater attention be paid to psychosocial development.
3 MD is Military Development grade i.e. the overall performance rating as a leader in fulfilling military training requirements
120
Researcher Year Sector Research Method
Purpose of Research Findings
Strang and Kuhnert 2009 Professiona l Services - Consulting SOI and PLP5 67 executives
Examined the difference in leader performance as a function of LDL and LDL was tested as a predictor of leader performance
LDL emerged as an important predictor of leader performance. Berger and Atkins 2009 Variety of industries SOI with 15 mangers/senio r executives
Explored the use of the SOI as a coaching tool.
2 key implications for coaching practice – coaching mind-set and coaching technique.
Mumma 2010 Education – college SOI and LMX- MDM6 8 Presidents and 29 student officers Investigated if higher constructive developmental stage would offer higher quality Leader Member Exchange (LMX) relationship.
Findings did not support the hypothesis that a President with higher CDT stage would have better LMX relationship with student officers.
Findings supported that increased age correlated with an increase in constructive developmental stage. Bugenhagen and Barbuto 2012 Community and Education SOI 53 executives
Field study that tested the relationship between CDT level and sources of work motivation.
Results indicated that constructive development progression was significantly related to instrumental motivation and that the four other sources of work motivation exist independently of constructive developmental level.
5 PLP is Personality Leadership Profile a leadership instrument used to measure personality
121
Researcher Year Sector Research Method
Purpose of Research Findings
Zintel 2012 Leadership programme offered by Cranfield University, UK Semi- structured interviews 9 executives
Explored how participants construct change and to understand the implications of change for their own leadership practice.
In all nine cases change occurred and in 5 cases (out of 7) personal development as well as expansion of leadership capabilities were found. Howell and Helsing 2014 Non-profit - international institution for public- private cooperation SOI 11 Fellows at the World Economic Forum
Explored the value for the organisation of measuring mental complexity.
Noted the importance of using a developmental assessment that can provide rich and nuanced data as a tool for leader development.
122