Main Study Conceptual Framework
4.1 A conceptual framework for LLP Technology
This chapter outlines a framework for the present study based on an integration of the main elements first discussed in the literature review along with information gained from the exploratory study. The research aim is to test the effectiveness of the LLP Technology based on an analysis of theory as applied to practice. To achieve this aim, the research design adopts a comprehensive multi-method approach in order to systematically gather evidence.
The first theory that underlies this research is Cognitive Load Theory (Pass et al. 2003). In this context, this theory pinpoints the task difficulty that L2 university students generally have to cope with in order to understand monologues in English. Consequently, a typical lecture may be described as being high in elemental interactivity thus requiring L2 students to be able to understand a matrix of interrelated elements in lecture discourse in order to comprehend the whole lecture. A second task that L2 students perform at university is notetaking. Thus, the
A second theory, referred to as Dual Processing Theory (May er &
Moreno 1 998), hypothesizes the support that L2 students can get from two encoding modes: the auditory channel and the visual channel. This support can come from LLP, a technology that enables L2 students to both hear and see digitised text displayed on a screen. With regard to lectures, the LLP Technology can provide support for L2 students who can follow lectures by listening and scanning the screen. As lectures are complex entities and difficult to understand for L2 students, the extra visual support afforded by LLP may be beneficial to L2 comprehension and notetaking.
In addition to comprehension, L2 students ' strategy use can be affected by the LLP Technology. The variation in quantity and quality of strategy use among L2 students is linked to levels of listening comprehension. However, as the technology is innovative and a potential addition to the L2 classroom, L2 strategy use may evolve as experience of using the technology grows.
In the present study, the lecture delivery style is 'reading aloud' and information-driven lectures are used because their discourse structure complements the notetaking framework that in turn facilitates scoring of participants' scores. The researcher has designed a notetaking framework with a view to further decreasing cognitive load by scaffolding the recording of information without stifling notetaking styles. There are four strands to this investigation: Cognitive Load and Dual Processing Theories; Liberated Learning Technology; listening strategy use; and lecture discourse structure.
Figure 2 Conceptual Framework/or LLP (adapted from Mayer and Moreno 2003 :44)
V isual text LLP Lecture digitized text displayed discourse markers signaling words Stimulus presentation informational units Aud itory text teacher Lecture text read aloud: discourse markers, Signaling words, informational units 3 listening stages 1. perception
Selecting images dual model selecting words
Images organ ized in visual STM
germane cogmtive load interactiv ity) Sounds organized in aud itory STM cognitive overload
Integration: dual modes act as support to
comprehension, notetaking, and metacogn ition
notetaking scores emails
questionnaires VPAs
2. parsing
(high elemental
Figure 2 above depicts a model of human processing that assumes the
following: 1 . information processing comprises two separate channels :
an auditory one for sounds and a visual one for images; and, 2 . each channel has a limited capacity for comprehension.
The five stages depicted in the process in figure 2. are as follows:
1 . the teacher begins to read the lecture and C SR digitised text appears on-screen;
2. the participants hear sounds of words and see the images of words on-screen;
3 . the participants use a metacognitive selection strategy to choose important lecture words for processing using both a visual and an auditory mode;
4. the words are held and manipulated in STM and then organised into
syntactic structure and integrated using visual and auditory modes ;
5 . the words are then linked to background knowledge, meaning is derived, words are recorded, and the lecture is evaluated.
Embedded within this process are the following listening stages:
perception: the initial recognition of words from sounds
parsing: the organisation of words into recognisable syntax
utilisation: the linking of the organised words to background knowledge to derive meaning.
L2 l isteners have limited STM capacity for holding information and manipulating it (Meskill 1 996). The informational units in lectures contain high elemental interactivity that may exceed STM capacity thus cognitively overloading L2 listeners. Conversely, the task of tracking informational units that have been converted to on-screen digitised text constitutes germane cognitive load. As dual processing is the presentation of information in visual and auditory mode, it renders the information redundant and therefore more comprehensible to L2 students. Consequently the dual task of listening and reading should constitute germane cognitive that enables students to more effectively comprehend the high elemental interactivity in lecture informational units.
Lectures place a heavy processmg load on L2 listeners (Thompson 2003 : 5). Liberated Learning aims to give support in listening comprehension. In doing so, it may give L2 listeners the ability to compensate for any deficiencies in listening comprehension (Leitch & MacMillan 2003: 1 0). In fact, LLP Technology may break the "negative cycle of expectation" by supporting instruction in lecture discourse structure and listening strategies.
In Dual Processing Theory, cognitive load is lightened when aural text is supported by visual written text. In this way, limited working memory resources are not overstretched so that learning can be promoted (Paas
This learning was attributed to the dual processing capacity of working memory (Moreno & Mayer 2002 : 1 56). Working memory is made up of a central executive and two STMs: the phonological loop for processing messages in verbal form and the visuo-spatial sketchpad for processing information in image form (Lee & Kang 2002 :64). When students listen to a lecture and simultaneously see digitised text on a screen, they can select both aural and visual information without being overloaded cognitively. This effect is the result of the independent working of the STMs in working memory which allows extra processing capacity to be created ( Moreno & Mayer 2002 : 1 62). In this way, information to be processed is divided between these two systems (Mousavi et al.
1 995 :33 1 ) resulting in enhanced learning (Mousavi et al. 1 995 :332).
Information is processed in a similar fashion in both reading and listening. Both employ verbal codes to process information and they generate the use of similar cognitive processes that aid students to form
concepts from the information (Jones & Plass 2002 : 548). L2 students
can metacognitively select aural and written information to understand a text and construct l inks between these formats to build a mental model
of the information (Jones & Plass 2002:548). In this way, L2 students
who listen to lecture comprehension may be aided by processing the
aural text with the support of on-screen digitised text (J ones & Plass
An important underlying construct that determines the effectiveness of the LLP System with individual students is their metacognitive awareness when listening and reading. The following three metacognitive strategies are of importance to this study: selection, concentration, and evaluation.
Selection is important for comprehension and the recording of information as the L2 listener tries to selectively listen for lecture discourse elements such as frame markers and record the salient points of lectures. Concentration is required for the monitoring of listening input even at times where comprehension problems may anse. Evaluation reflects a higher level of listening ability as students can become aware of how and why they comprehend listening input and why their comprehension fails.
Research in multi-media learning for students of other languages has concentrated on how to improve listening skills or alternatively, on how deficient listening skills can be compensated for (J ones & Plass 2002 :547). The present study focuses on how listening skills can be improved in combination with the use of strategies to compensate for missed information with the support of LLP Technology. The effectiveness of the LLP System is measured through:
1 . an analysis of notetaking quality
In sum, this study adopts what could be called an ' inclusive research framework' that is informed by a set of theoretical perspectives that collectively explain information processing and executive functions. Particular attention is given to an analysis of the metacognitive system through gathering information on students' awareness and self regulation of thinking processes. Evidence for the effects of C SR is gathered through direct analysis of notetaking as well as information based on students' perceptions and experiences with using the system.