INSTITUTIONAL BACKGROUND
2.6 Chapter Summary
This chapter has described the development of the Australian accounting standards relating to the classification and reporting of non-recurring items that are examined in this study, namely, abnormal items and discontinuing and discontinued operations, in comparison with the UK and US. Over the years, and during the course of my study period, each jurisdiction has implemented reforms to their accounting standards partly in response to criticisms over the alleged opportunistic reporting of these items in order to inhibit their alleged misapplication to inflate core earnings, in addition to enhancing guidelines for a more credible reporting environment.
I discussed the progression of disclosure requirements for extraordinary items in Australia which allegedly affected the classification of AI. This was followed by a discussion of the changing disclosure requirements for abnormal items in response to their alleged misclassifications. Next, I discussed the standard governing DO disclosure which underwent revisions that, in contrast to those for AI between 2002 and 2005, but similar to those for AI post-2005, could encourage classification shifting. The effect of these amendments on the classification of non-recurring items is, however, unclear. I then discussed the evolution of disclosure requirements for the same non-recurring items in the UK and US where empirical evidence of their opportunistic classification has been documented.
In the next chapter, I present a review of the earnings management literature in which I will elaborate and provide further empirical evidence on the use of classification shifting as an earnings management technique.
TABLE 2.1
Comparison of the Reporting Requirements for Abnormal Items and Discontinuing and Discontinued Operations (applicable during the study period) between Australia, the UK and US
Australia U.K. U.S.
Accounting Standards
ASRB1018 (AASB1018) Profit
and Loss Accounts
FRS3 Reporting Financial Performance APB30 Reporting the Results
of Operations
Effective date 31 December 1989 23 June 1993 30 September 1973
Non- recurring item
Abnormal items Exceptional items Unusual/Infrequent (Special) items
Definition
Items of revenue and expense attributable to ordinary activities which are considered abnormal by reason of their size and effect on the results for the period.
Material items which derive from events or transactions that fall within the ordinary activities and need to be disclosed due to their size or incidence.
Special items are not defined, but the standard requires 'unusual' or 'infrequent' items (not both) to be reported separately. Unusual items are those that are abnormal and significantly different from the ordinary activities of the firm.
Infrequent items are transactions or events not reasonably expected to recur in the foreseeable future.
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Disclosure
On the face of the income statement or in the notes.
Sub-totals of earnings before abnormal items and earnings after abnormal items
were allowed.
Disclosed individually or in aggregate in the notes or on the face of the income statement in two ways:
(1) immediately below operating profit but above profit from ordinary activities under its natural statutory format heading;
(2) operating exceptional items to be disclosed above operating profit, and non-operating exceptional items to be disclosed under three categories below operating profit but above
ordinary profit:
(i) profit/loss on the sale or termination of an operation;
(ii) costs of a fundamental reorganisation or restructuring;
(iii) profit/loss on disposal of fixed assets. Items that relate to continuing operations must be distinguished from items relating to
discontinued operations, and disclosed individually.
Material unusual or infrequent items should be reported as a separate component of income from continuing operations on the face of the income statement.
Gains or losses of similar nature not individually material should be aggregated and reported in the notes.
39
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Examples provided in standards Large:
- bad debt write-offs; - inventory write-downs;
- write-offs of research & development expenses;
- depreciation adjustments;
- gains/losses from sale of properties or investments.
Profit/loss on the sale or termination of an operation;
costs of a fundamental reorganisation or restructuring;
profit/loss on disposal of fixed assets.
None, however, empirical studies provide the following:
- restructuring charges; - natural disaster losses;
- non-recurring profits/losses on sale of assets, investments and securities;
- write-downs or write-offs of receivables, inventories, PPE or R&D costs.
Restrictions regarding disclosure
None Exceptional items should not be aggregated on
the face of the income statement under one heading of exceptional items but each item should be included within its natural statutory formal heading and separately disclosed.
Prohibits the presentation of sub-totals before 'special' items.
Accounting Standards
AASB1018 Profit and Loss Accounts FRS3 Reporting Financial Performance APB30 Reporting the Results of
Operations
Effective date
Financial year ending 30 June 2001. Amended and effective for financial year ending 30 June 2002.
23 June 1993 30 September 1973
TABLE 2.1 (continued)
Non- recurring item
Specific revenues and expenses.
The term 'abnormal items' is absent from the standard.
Exceptional items Unusual/Infrequent (Special) items
Definition
The term 'abnormal items' is not defined. The standard requires the reporting of ‘specific’ revenues and expenses from ordinary activities that are of such a size, nature or incidence that their disclosure is relevant in explaining the firm's
performance
Material items which derive from events or transactions that fall within the ordinary activities and need to be disclosed due to their size or incidence.
Special items are not defined, but the standard requires 'unusual' or 'infrequent' items (not both) to be reported separately. Unusual items are those that are abnormal and significantly different from the ordinary activities of the firm.
Infrequent items are transactions or events not reasonably expected to recur in the foreseeable future.
TABLE 2.1(continued) Disclosure
Nature and amount of 'material' specific items must be presented separately on the face of the income statement or in the notes (2002 version).
Line items, sub-headings and sub-totals necessary for explaining the firm’s financial performance must be disclosed separately on the face of the income statement provided that:
(a) such sub-totals are presented before results from ordinary activities;
(b) such sub-totals are presented less prominently than results from ordinary activities; and (c) a profit/loss sub-total not
presented immediately before the ‘material revenue/expense from ordinary activities.
Disclosed individually or in aggregate in the notes or on the face of the income statement in two ways:
(1) immediately below operating profit but above profit from ordinary activities under its natural
statutory format heading;
(2) operating exceptional items to be disclosed above operating profit, and non-operating exceptional items to be disclosed under three categories below operating profit but above
ordinary profit:
(i) profit/loss on the sale or termination of an operation;
(ii) costs of a fundamental reorganisation or restructuring;
(iii) profit/loss on disposal of fixed assets. Items that relate to continuing operations must be distinguished from items relating to
discontinued operations and disclosed individually.
Material unusual or infrequent items should be reported as a separate component of income from continuing operations on the face of the income statement.
Gains or losses of similar nature not individually material should be aggregated and reported in the notes.
42
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Examples provided in standards
Litigation settlements; restructuring of operations; net gain/loss on disposal of receivables, investments, PPE and intangible assets; net increment and/or decrement from revaluation of noncurrent assets.
(2002 version)
Profit/loss on the sale or termination of an operation; costs of a fundamental
reorganisation or restructuring; profit/loss on disposal of fixed assets.
None, however, empirical studies provide the following:
- restructuring charges; - natural disaster losses;
- non-recurring profits/losses on sale of assets, investments and securities;
- write-downs or write-offs of receivables, inventories, PPE or R&D costs.
Restrictions regarding disclosure
Removed abnormal items from standard, thus, the presentation of results before and after abnormal items was no longer required.
Additional line items, sub-headings and sub-totals must be disclosed before and less prominently than results from ordinary activities, results from
extraordinary items, and net profit/loss. (2002 version)
No express prohibitions, however, disclosure requirements imply prohibition of exceptional items below ordinary profit.
Prohibits the presentation of sub-totals before 'special' items. 43
TABLE 2.1 (continued)
Accounting Standards
AASB101 Presentation of
Financial Statements
IAS1 (as adopted by EU) Presentation
of Financial Statements
APB30 Reporting the Results of
Operations
Effective date
Financial periods beginning on or after 1 January 2005.
Financial periods beginning on or after 1 January 2005. 30 September 1973 Non- recurring item
No generic term provided but the standard requires the reporting of additional line items, headings and sub-totals that are 'material' and of such a nature that their disclosure is necessary.
No generic term provided but the standard requires the reporting of additional line items, headings and sub-totals that are 'material' and of such a nature that their disclosure is necessary.
Unusual/Infrequent (Special) items
Definition
The term 'abnormal items' is not defined. An item is 'material' if its omission or misstatement could, individually or collectively influence the decisions of users.
Materiality depends on the size and nature of the omission or misstatement.
The term 'exceptional items' is no longer defined.
An item is 'material' if its omission or misstatement could, individually or
collectively influence the decisions of users. Materiality depends on the size and nature of the omission or misstatement.
Special items are not defined, but the standard requires 'unusual' or 'infrequent' items (not both) to be reported separately. Unusual items are those that are abnormal and significantly different from the ordinary activities of the firm.
Infrequent items are transactions or events not reasonably expected to recur in the foreseeable future.
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Disclosure
Nature and amount of 'material' additional line item must be presented separately on the face of the income statement or in the notes.
Additional line items, headings and sub- totals are allowed to be presented on the face of the income statement if necessary.
Nature and amount of 'material' additional line item must be presented separately on the face of the income statement or in the notes. Additional line items, headings and sub-totals must be presented in the statement of
comprehensive income and the separate statement of comprehensive income (if presented).
Material unusual or infrequent items should be reported as a separate component of income from continuing operations on the face of the income statement.
Gains or losses of similar nature not individually material should be aggregated and reported in the notes.
Examples provided in standards
Write-downs of inventories and PPE and reversals of such write-downs;
restructuring of activities and reversals of provisions for restructuring;
disposals of items of PPE; disposals of investments; discontinued operations; litigation settlements; other reversals of provisions.
Write-downs of inventories and PPE and reversals of such write-downs;
restructuring of activities and reversals of provisions for restructuring;
disposals of items of PPE; disposals of investments; discontinued operations; litigation settlements; other reversals of provisions.
None, however, empirical studies provide the following:
- restructuring charges; - natural disaster losses;
- non-recurring profits/losses on sale of assets, investments and securities;
- write-downs or write-offs of receivables, inventories, PPE or R&D costs
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Restrictions regarding disclosure
No restriction placed on the presentation of additional sub-totals.
Prohibits the presentation of extraordinary items either anywhere in financial
statements.
Prohibits the presentation of extraordinary items either on the face of the financial statements or in the notes.
Removes 'exceptional items' from the standard, thus no more reporting of sub-totals before and after exceptional items.
Prohibits the presentation of sub-totals before 'special' items. Accounting Standards
AASB5 Noncurrent Assets Held for
Sale and Discontinued Operations
IFRS5 (as adopted by EU) Noncurrent
Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations
SFAS144 Accounting for the
Impairment and Disposal of Long-Lived Assets
Effective date 1 January 2005 1 January 2005 15 December 2001
Non- recurring Item
Discontinuing and Discontinued operations
Discontinuing and Discontinued operations
Discontinuing and Discontinued operations
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Definition
A component of an entity that either has been disposed of or is classified as held for sale and:
(a) represents a separate major line of business or geographical area of operation; (b) is part of a single co- ordinated plan to dispose of a separate major line of business or geographical area of operations; or (c) a subsidiary acquired exclusively for resale
A component of an entity that either has been disposed of, or is classified as held for sale, and
(a) represents a separate major line of business or geographical area of operation;
(b) is part of a single co-ordinated plan to dispose of a separate major line of business or geographical area of operations; or
(c) a subsidiary acquired exclusively for resale
A component of an entity that can be clearly distinguished, operationally and for financial reporting, from the rest of the entity, that is to be disposed of by sale, abandonment, or purchased exclusively with a view for resale. Component of an entity can be reporting segment, reporting unit, subsidiary, or asset grouping. Disclosure
A single aggregate net of tax amount shall be disclosed separately on the face of the income statement.
Analysis of aggregate amount to be either on the income statement or in the notes. If presented on income statement, must be separate from continuing operations.
A single aggregate net of tax amount shall be disclosed separately on the face of the income statement.
Analysis of aggregate amount to be either on the income statement or in the notes. If presented on income statement, must be separate from continuing operations.
Aggregate results of DO and gain/loss from disposal of DO must be disclosed separately below results from continuing operations but above results from EI.
Three amounts of DO must be disclosed separately on the income statement: (i) results from operations of component being discontinued; (ii) net gain/loss from disposal; (iii) impairment loss on asset held for sale if not yet disposed of.
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Examples provided in standards None None
- a product group for a manufacturing firm where operations and cash flow can be clearly distinguished
- a loss making beauty care products group committing to a plan to sell the product group with its operations.
Restrictions regarding disclosure None None None Previous Accounting Standard
AASB1042 Discontinuing Operations FRS3 Presentation of Financial
Statements
SFAS144 Accounting for the
Impairment and Disposal of Long-Lived Assets
Effective Date
1 July 2001 23 June 1993 15 December 2001
Non- recurring item
Discontinuing and Discontinued operations
Discontinuing and Discontinued operations Discontinuing and Discontinued operations
TABLE 2.1 (continued) Definition A major component of an entity that
management has developed a single plan to dispose of in its entirety, or abandon, or terminate through a combination of one or more transactions and abandonment. The component of an entity must represent a separate major activity geographical area of operations, and can be separately identified for operational and financial reporting purposes.
Operations of the reporting entity that are sold or terminated and that satisfy all of these conditions:
(a) the sale or termination is completed either in the period or before the earlier of three months after the commencement of the subsequent period on which the financial statements are approved;
(b) if a termination, the former activities have ceased permanently;
(c) the sale or termination has a material effect on the entity's operation;
(d) operations and activities of the disposed reporting entity are clearly distinguishable, physically, operationally, and for financial reporting purposes.
A sale or termination must have a material effect on the nature or focus of the firm's operations and represents a material reduction from its operating facilities.
Operations of a ‘segment of a business’ that has been sold, abandoned, spun off, or otherwise disposed of or, although still operating, is the subject of a formal plan for disposal.
A segment may be in a form of subsidiary, a division, or a department, and in some cases a joint venture or other non-subsidiary investee that is clearly distinguished from results and operations of the entity.
TABLE 2.1 (continued)
Disclosure Each DO to be reported individually on the face of income statement within
ordinary activities.
Detailed information about the DO must be reported in the income statement.
Aggregate results to be disclosed separately on the face of the income statement, below results from continuing operations, down to operating profit but above ordinary profit.
Analysis of the aggregate amount to be either on the income statement or in the notes.
Amount of results from DO and gain/loss from disposal should be disclosed separately from results from continuing operations on the face of the income statement, as a separate component of income before extraordinary items.
Examples provided in standard
None A hotel company which had traditionally
served the lower end of the hotel market sold its existing chain and bought luxury hotels, or the same company sold its hotels in the US and buy hotels in Europe.
None
Restrictions regarding disclosure
No disclosure required until the
occurrence of the initial disclosure event. None None 50