Chapter Summary

In the beginning of this chapter, the researcher provided a brief overview of written English linguistic challenges on ESL crewmembers in different sectors of the

transportation industry, including aviation maintenance. There were noted gaps in the MAIB investigative report regarding written English language challenges on ESL crewmembers. It was noted that challenges that ESL crewmembers experienced in the MAIB investigated ship accident, are indeed relevant to difficulties that ESL flight crewmembers experience while using written English language on the flight deck. This chapter also provided an introduction to the problem of written English language issues in the airline industry. Particularly, use of written English language by ESL flight crewmembers on the flight deck was explored. The researcher discussed many airline aircraft accidents. Aircraft accidents discussed revealed that a multitude of cognitive variables (e.g. vocabulary reading comprehension, text types, and word meaning) impact ESL flight crewmembers’ ability to read and understand written English language

technical information. Overall, aircraft accidents indicated that ESL flight crewmembers’ reading comprehension abilities were linked to written English language

misunderstandings on the flight deck. As there were noted gaps in the investigation reports related to written English language impact on ESL flight crewmembers

performance, the researcher provided an indication that more research will be conducted to fill these types of gaps throughout the literature review and studies.

Government agencies provided inputs on factors that influence written English language barriers on the flight deck, with respect to flight deck crew alerting and information systems. General overview of written English language technical documentation use by ESL flight crewmembers, and flight deck crew alerting and information systems was discussed. Overview of AIA, EAAI, ICAO and FAA research on language challenges regarding ESL flight crewmembers was also discussed. Both ICAO and FAA determined there is a need to research impact of ESL flight crew performance with respect to their use of written English language technical documentation and response to crew alerts. It was also noted that FAA regulations indicate the need for ESL flight crewmembers to have the ability to read English language. But, their regulations do not elaborate on ESL flight crewmember reading comprehension or context of English language use on the flight deck. The ICAO provided details on the scope of ELPRs, but it was noted that their regulations do not cover ESL adult ability to read English language.

Collectively, it was determined that there is a gap between the two agencies regarding ESL flight crewmembers ability to read and understand English language. Therefore, more research is needed to understand the impact of ESL flight crewmembers ability to read and comprehend English language on the flight deck. The AIA and EAAI

determined that more research on ESL flight crewmembers is needed, with respect to their use of system diagnostics with an English language emphasis. Since English- language-based flight decks are operated by ESL flight crewmembers, there is a need to research impact of written English language on ESL flight crewmember performance. Particularly, design and integration factors such as vocabulary type, text genre, and sentence length need to be investigated, as these factors could impact ESL flight

crewmember reading comprehension.

English as-a-second language strategy utilized to read and understand written English language technical information, could also impact how well they read and comprehend written English language. English as-a-second language flight crewmembers level of English language proficiency and background knowledge of written English language technical information are demographic factors that could contribute to how well ESL flight crewmembers understand written English language. These are some of the factors that need to be further investigated, with respect to design of written English language on crew alerting and information systems, and the effects these factors have on ESL flight crewmembers performance.

Introduction to flight deck engineering provided an overview of how inconsistent use of written English language in the design of crew alerting systems, has the potential to cause misunderstandings and negatively impact human performance. Aforementioned design factors should be considered as part of the human factors engineering design of crew alerting and information systems. Critical design questions that address the impact of written English language technical information design on flight deck crew alerting and information systems, should be proposed to designers of information on displays and corresponding procedures. These design questions should be highlighted in the

preliminary design and critical design review phases of product development. Moreover, these questions should address the impacts on ESL flight crewmember performance, and how to effectively design crew alerting and information systems to accommodate ESL flight crewmembers on the flight deck. After all, design of written English language technical information on crew alerting and information systems has the potential to impact ESL flight crewmember interaction with these systems. Written English language design could impact their reading comprehension abilities, and strategy utilized to read and understand written English language.

English as-a-second language background knowledge of written English language technical information could also impact their ability to read and understand text. English as-a-second language ability to read written English language technical information has the potential to impact ESL flight crewmembers performance. Structure and layout of written English language technical information on crew alerting and information systems, have the potential to confuse or lead to misunderstandings by ESL flight crewmembers on the flight deck. Translation of written English language technical information into an ESL flight crewmember native language has the potential to impact their reading

comprehension.

Although design of written English language appears to be a critical component in the development and design of crew alerting and information systems, there are many other factors that can impact ESL flight crew performance and their use of written English language technical information. Fundamentally, chapter three provides in-depth reviews of English language literacy and proficiency challenges with respect to ESL adult use of written English language. These factors need to be discussed so that there is a clear understanding regarding the underpinnings of written English language challenges on ESL adults. Finally, the researcher will address the extent to which written English

language has the potential to impact design of crew alerting and information systems. This will be accomplished by exploring written English language challenges on ESL adults.

From an industry standpoint, there has not been an adequate alignment between the causes and effects that negatively impact ESL flight crewmembers English language proficiency and their reading comprehension abilities, when using written English language on technical information. Additionally, there has not been an adequate alignment between ESL flight crewmembers background knowledge of vocabulary words/text genre, and their ability to read and understand written English language technical information. Earlier reported challenges on ESL flight crewmembers performance while using written English language technical information should be adequately investigated with respect to design and use of Western built crew alerting and information systems by ESL flight crewmembers. There has not been an adequate global execution plan to harmonize English language gaps that exist between ESL flight

crewmember ability to read and comprehend written English language, and use of written English language on flight deck crew alerting and information systems. Therefore, an investigation into precursors that negatively impact ESL flight crewmember performance managing crew alerting and information systems on the flight deck is necessary.

The goal of the researcher’s investigation into these issues is to support many of the current and past initiatives that government and industry have mentioned, while providing new evidence to substantiate their claims. Following table highlight aforementioned aircraft accident factors that influenced native and ESL flight

crewmembers’ performance. The table provides a general scope of operational issues discovered in each aircraft accident, so that there is a clearer picture of factors

influencing ESL flight crewmembers’ performance on the flight deck. Finally, possible crew workload impacts contributing to the accidents are highlighted, so that the reader has an understanding of various types of cognitive factors discussed in the literature review and researcher’s studies. Crew workload impacts have the potential to negatively impact flight crewmember performance, and therefore need to be highlighted as potential performance impacts on the flight deck. Overview of these factors will help facilitate an understanding of the type of issues that the researcher will further investigate in various studies.

Table 1 Aircraft Accident Factors

Aircraft Accident Identification

ESL/Native flight crewmembers

Contributory Factors to Aircraft Accident

Operational Impact on Flight Deck Possible Crew Workload Impact Factor Q400 Aircraft

Accident Native flight crewmembers Unclear written English language terminology on QRH checklist Misinterpretation of crew alerting information (system fault data) Temporal Demand, Performance Air Asia Aircraft

Accident

ESL flight crewmembers

Challenged by interpretation of a computer-reset function on the QRH checklist. Ambiguous statements confused ESL flight crewmembers

Negatively impacted ESL flight crewmembers ability to solve system problem

Temporal Demand and Mental Demand A330 Aircraft

Accident

ESL flight crewmembers

ESL flight crewmembers were challenged with interpretation of technical documentation on the flight deck. Lengthy procedure caused ESL adults to experience reading comprehension issues with documentation.

ESL flight crewmembers misunderstandings in technical documentation and ESL flight crewmembers inability to execute procedures adequately impacted their performance Mental Demand, Performance Noar Linhas Airlines Aircraft Accident ESL flight crewmembers

QRH checklist written English language inaccuracies and ESL flight crewmembers reading comprehension challenges

Failure to solve an emergency engine failure on takeoff Performance China Northern Aircraft Accident ESL flight crewmembers

ESL flight crewmembers did not understand meaning of Ground Proximity warning system misunderstanding of words ‘pull-up’

Failure to respond to Ground Proximity warning system in a timely manner led to limited window of response time Temporal Demand Boeing 737 Aircraft Accident ESL flight crewmembers

ESL flight crewmembers learning of written English language and their English language proficiency

ESL flight crewmembers English language proficiency did not allow them to properly utilize technical documentation on the flight deck

Mental Demand, Performance Boeing 777 Aircraft Accident ESL flight crewmembers Misunderstandings of automated systems and written English language technical information on landing phase. Particularly, the 777 FCOM procedures contained dissimilar wording that was needed to be integrated to solve an issue

May have led to limited window of opportunity to recover aircraft from a low airspeed (aircraft was in a low energy state) Performance, Temporal Demand ATR-72 Aircraft Accident ESL flight crewmembers

Written English language complex sentence structure and vocabulary words on flight deck technical documentation, and English language proficiency

Negatively impacted ESL flight crewmembers ability to read and understand written English language technical documentation on the flight deck

Effort, Frustration, Mental Demand

MD-83 Aircraft Accident

ESL flight crewmembers

Written English language in FCOM is ambiguous regarding flight crew response to aircraft icing conditions and Engine Pressure Ratio issues.

Negatively impacted their response time and ability to read and understand text associated with non- normal conditions

Mental Demand, Temporal Demand