One of the characteristic features of the rags Pilu and Gara is the use of both forms of Ga (III) and Ni (VII) In the ‘transposed* rags these are also a fourth lower (or a fifth higher) and appear

as both forms of Ni (VII) and Ma (IV). These rags can be heard on the two following records:

Pancam se Pilu, played by Vilayat Khan, H.M.V. 7 EPE 59; and Pancam se Gcira by Ravi

Shankar, H.M.V. N 94754 (78 r.p.m.).

The Effect o f Drones

remainder of the Circle of Thats is still unexplained. Seen in terms of consonant fourths and fifths, the primary thats are nearly perfect, each having only one imperfect relationship. The occurrence of the other thats in the Circle cannot be justified in terms of consonance as each of these has several imperfect relationships; for instance,

Marva that has two augmented fourths, Sa-Ma# (I-IVs) and Reb-Pa (Ilb-V), and an

augmented fifth, Reb-Dha (llb-VI). We have also seen the primary thats as a connected series beginning on the successive degrees of a parent heptatonic scale. This is a complete, conscious system and excludes all other thats. Lastly, we have seen these primary thats growing out of an imperceptible evolutionary process in which the primary and secondary drones are inverted. Here too we have been unable to go beyond the seven serial modes.

Sa Re Ga M at pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Re Ga M a Pa D h a 'N i Sa I t Sa R c G a M a Pa D haN ili Sa I I Sa R e G at M a Pa Dha N it Sa Sa Re G at M a Pa D h a t N it Sa Sa R et G at M a P a D h at N it Sa Sa R et G a t M a P a t D h a t N it Sa

Let us look at our subject once again in a different light. In all our discussion of scales we have taken the upper limit o f these scales entirely for granted. The feeling of identity which one experiences in the octave of the ground-note provides a ‘natural’ opportunity to terminate a scale. It has been said th at the Octave has an unique status in the series o f notes, comparable to the role o f the number One in the set of all numbers.1 There can, o f course, be no denying the exceptional status o f the octave;

we can, however, question whether the pre-eminence of the octave is a m atter of degree or of kind. In other words, we can question whether the identity of the octave with the ground-note is absolute or whether all notes can be identified to some extent with the ground-note, while the octave has the highest degree of identity.

Perhaps we can gain an insight into this question by a consideration o f what one would actually hear if the ground-note and its octave were sounded loudly and simultaneously. U nder normal circumstances, the fundamental notes, Sa and Sa, would be the most prominent. One would also hear the overtones of the fundamentals, and, in addition to these, other series o f tones produced by the interaction of the two fundamentals and their overtones. These are known as summation and difference tones.

The first summation tone is the sum of the frequencies of the two fundamentals, while the first difference tone is the difference between their frequencies. The relative loudness of the overtones and the summation and difference tones has been calculated by Sir Janies Jeans.1 Based 0 1 1 his table, we give in order of diminishing intensity

various tones heard when Sa and Sa are sounded together:

1. Sa-Sa (I-I) The two fundamentals

2. Sa-Sa (I-i) The first overtones

Pa (V) The first summation tone

Sa (I) The first difference tone

3. Pa-Pa (V-V) The second overtones

If we extend this list we will have, in diminishing intensity, the whole o f the over­ tone series as well as the other summation and difference tones. For our purposes the above is sufficient for we already see the very considerable prominence of Pa in the sound we hear.

In comparison let us see what happens when Sa and Pa are sounded loudly and simultaneously:

1. Sa-Pa (I-V) The two fundamentals

2. Sa-Fa (1-Y) The first overtones

Cla (III) The first summation tone

Sa (I) The first difference tone

3. i*a-Re (V-II) The second overtones

There is a m arked similarity in the two lists. A t the same time there are also some differences. G a (III), which is the first summation tone of the Sa-Pa fundamentals, is only the fourth overtone given by the Sa-Sa fundamentals, and consequently will sound more prom inent with the Sa-Pa fundamentals. The second overtone o f Pa,

The Effect o f Drones

i.e. Re (II), appears only as the eighth overtone of Sa, and will certainly be more pro­ minent with Sa-Pa as fundamentals.1 A t the same time the Sa is further strengthened by the first difference tone (Sa) of the Sa-Pa fundamentals, and this would tend to enhance the feeling of identity of the Pa with the Sa. This evidence seems to suggest that the difference between the relationship of the octave to the ground-note and the fifth to the ground-note is a m atter of degree and not of kind. It is interesting to note that against a Sa drone the octave Sa, when sounded, produces Pa as a summa­ tion tone, while the Pa, when sounded against the same drone, produces Sa as a difference tone.

In Indian music particularly, where drones are prominent, the Sa and the Pa tend to acquire a certain ambivalence. The present writer has often noted the difficulty students experience in differentiating between Sa and Pa even when there is a clearly audible conventional drone in which the Sa fundamental is much m ore prominent than the Pa.

In our discussion of scales we have taken no special account o f the Pa, considering it merely as one of the steps, albeit a consonant one, between the ground-note and its octave. It is of importance to note also th at we felt no need to go beyond the octave on the presumption that the series o f notes would repeat themselves from the octave onwards.2 However, if the Pa can also be identified with the ground-note Sa, will there not be also a tendency to consider the Pa as the end o f a register and the begin­ ning o f the next one ? If this is so, do we not also expect the intervals to repeat them­ selves beyond the Pa, just as we expect the intervals to repeat themselves beyond the octave Sa?

This raises considerable difficulties, for the Pa does not divide the octave into two musically equal parts, Sa-Pa being a fifth and Pa-Sa being a fourth. In spite o f this, there is a strong tendency to view the octave in two parallel parts. The half-way point of the twelve semitones of the octave is Ma# (IV#), but the dissonance of this note to the ground-note should preclude its use as the end and beginning o f a register. On either side of the Ma# are located the two m ost consonant notes (excluding the octave) i.e. those notes which are m ost easily identified with the Sa, and it is with these notes that the division of the octave is generally associated.

In ancient Greek musical theory the octave was divided into two tetrachords plus a wholetone. The wholetone could appear between the two tetrachords, Sa-M a and Pa-Sa (I-IV and V-I), in which case the tetrachords were said to be disjunct, or the wholetone could appear at the end o f the two tetrachords to complete the octave, Sa-M a and M a-Nib (I-IV and IV-VIIb), and the tetrachords were then said to be conjunct. The octave can also be divided into two overlapping pentachords, or into a pentachord and a tetrachord. These have all been tried a t one period or another,

1 This may help to explain why the Re, which occurs as a terminal note in a number of ragst does not convey quite the same element of suspense as does the second in Western classical music based on harmony of the triad.

2 This is not always true in Indian music, notable exceptions being the rags Des and Sorafh o f

but no perfect division of the octave is possible so long as the consonance of M a and P a is recognised. This may explain why, in theoretical systems, the names of the notes do not repeat beyond the M a or the Pa as they do beyond the octave.

Bhatkhande refers to the two parts of the octave as piirvang and uttrang, which he sometimes defines as the disjunct tetrachords Sa-M a and P a-S a,1 and at other times as two overlapping pentachords, Sa-Pa and Ma~Sa.2 In Bhatkhande’s theory the only significance o f this sort of division is to provide a basis for determining the time o f day at which a rag should be performed. We are suggesting, however, th at each successive note in one tetrachord has a certain measure of identity with its counter­ p art in the other (e.g. Sa with Pa, Re with Dha, etc.) and that this identity is o f the same kind, but o f a lesser degree, as that which we experience between a note and its octave.

As we have pointed out, there are several possible ways in which the octave can be divided. W ith Pa as the secondary drone, it would be reasonable to think of the octave as consisting o f two disjunct tetrachords, Sa-M a and P a-S a3—a view which seems particularly reasonable when we consider the scale as an ascending series, with the Pa as the initial of the second tetrachord. In descent, however, this same principle leads to a division of the octave into two conjunct tetrachords, Sa-Pa and Pa-R e, with a wholetone, Re-Sa, appearing at the bottom of the scale. From this it becomes immediately apparent th at a scale may easily be perceived in the light of more than one tetrachordal scheme, and th at there is a certain measure of ambiguity in the location of the wholetone disjunction.

If we now consider the same scale with a secondary M a drone, where M a is the initial note of the second tetrachord, we have in ascent two conjunct tetrachords, Sa-M a and M a-N fi, with the wholetone disjunction, Nit>-Sa, appearing at the top o f the scale, whereas in descent we have two disjunct tetrachords, Sa-Pa and M a-Sa, with the wholetone disjunction appearing between Pa and Ma. These four types are shown in the following schema:

Ex. 25. Tetrachord Species Pa Sa i _ r — ■ | Sa Ma Pa Sa Ma Sa Sa Pa M a Sa --- --- —I—®--- :--- - - --- --- 11 drones ( a ) Pa A Sa ---- --- Ascending disjunct Sa Pa Re Sa —c*--- ~i - e - droncs ( b ) r M a Sa )escending disjunct Sa Ma N it Sa --- [j ^ --- — — drones 1— | ® -C- "O- drones j _---1

(c) Descending conjunct (d) Ascending conjunct

1 H.S.P. I, p. 41. 2 K.P.M. V, p. 31.

3 If one permits the repetition of Pa, one could also consider the octave as a pentachord plus tetrachord, Sa-Pa and Pa-Sa. We shall, however, discuss this matter in terms of tetrachords.

The Effect o f Drones

It will be noticed that the ascending and descending disjunct tetrachord species are virtually the same, since the disjunction occurs between M a and Pa.

There is, however, a measure of ambiguity in conjunct and disjunct tetrachord types; conjunct tetrachords become disjunct when extended above or below a single octave register, and vice versa. In musical practice the ascending disjunct tetrachords could be realised as ascending conjunct in the tessitura from Pa to Pa (or Pa to Pa) as in Ex. 26a. Similarly, the other tetrachord types may be realised as in Ex. 26b, c, and d, respectively: Ex. 26. Pa Sa (a) Pa Sa M a Pa (b) M a Sa - o - d rones Ma Sa Pa Ma (c) Pa Sa Pa R e S a , Pa (d) Ma Sa Ma Sa M a E drones * drones

We have expressed these tetrachord types in relation to the drones, but it must be remembered that even when the secondary drone in a rag is M a, the Pa does have a considerable degree of consonance and may be an im portant note of that rag. Similarly, when the secondary drone is Pa, the M a also has a considerable degree of consonance and may also be important. Consequently, the tetrachord types are not always mutually exclusive and there are rags in which different tetrachord groupings may be emphasised as the rag is developed through its various stages. Later in this chapter we will have occasion to discuss other tetrachordal divisions o f the octave.

In analysing the six primary thats we notice th at some have parallel ascending disjunct tetrachords (i.e. the successive intervals in the two disjunct tetrachords are identical), while others have parallel descending conjunct tetrachords. Obviously, no scale may be parallel in both respects, for if it is parallel in one, the altered position of the disjunct wholetone ensures that it will be unbalanced in the other.

Inseparable from the consideration of these tetrachord types is the concept of the consonance of fourths and fifths. The successive intervals of two parallel conjunct tetrachords will be a fourth apart, while the successive intervals o f two parallel disjunct tetrachords will be a fifth apart. In the primary thats, as we have indicated earlier, there is only one imperfect relationship—one pair o f notes bearing the

relationship of augmented fourth/diminished fifth. It is this imperfect relationship which destroys the parallelism in one of the tetrachord types. If within the octave register the two notes stand as an augmented fourth, the conjunct tetrachord relation­ ship will be unbalanced while the disjunct tetrachord relationship o f fifths will remain perfect and balanced. If, however, the two notes stand as a diminished fifth within the octave register, the disjunct relationship o f fifths will be disturbed.

Viewed from the standpoint of musical practice, this discrepancy in the scale could be noticed in two ways, neither of which need be on a conscious level. First, it could be noticed through the absence of a consonant fourth or fifth. This would be particu­ larly significant in a musical system where fourths or fifths might be sounded simul­ taneously. A good example of this can be found in early Western Church music where the practice of parallel Organum (two voices moving in perfect fourths or fifths, note against note) drew attention to the tritone1 (augmented fourth) and led to the introduction of accidentals. This is probably not so significant in Indian music where only a single melody line is generally used, and jumps of fourths and fifths are exceptional. Secondly, it could come to notice as the musician tries to repeat a melodic phrase in the second tetrachord register. From our earlier discussion of the identity associated with the successive notes of the tetrachords, it would seem that the inability to repeat a phrase or even an interval in the second tetrachord would be disturbing in the same way, but to a lesser degree, as the inability to repeat a melodic figure or an interval in the next octave register. From the long range evolu­ tionary point of view this disturbance, as we hope to show, provides the vital spur for the evolution of new musical scales.

Let us now consider the application of these principles. In Bilaval that (No. A2) the ascending disjunct tetrachords are parallel, while the descending conjunct tetrachords are unbalanced:

Ex. 27. Bilaval that

Sa R e G a M a P a D h a N i Sa

R e G a M a / Pa

Ascending disjunct tetrachords Descending conjunct tetrachords

In this scale the lack o f balance is created by the difference in the first descending steps in the two conjunct tetrachords: the interval between Sa and N i is a semitone, while the interval between Pa and M a is a wholetone. This is a characteristic feature

1 In Western plainsong the tritone was forbidden and in early polyphonic music was referred to as diabolus in musica (the devil in music).

The Effect o f Drones

of Bilaval that', nevertheless, the lack of balance here demands special treatm ent, and it appears that certain melodic features are directly motivated by this irregularity in the scale and are manifest in many rags of Bilaval that. Some of these melodic features will be discussed in the chapters th at follow.

In general it may be said th at these melodic features tend to diminish the disturbing effect of the imbalance, but the final solution is to replace one of the unbalanced notes by a balanced one: in Bilaval that, to replace the Nil? by a Nib, or the Mab by a Mas. The former leads to Khamaj that (No. A3), and the latter to Kalyan (No. A l). Both of these have balanced descending conjunct tetrachords, but the balance in the ascending disjunct tetrachords is now disturbed. In these scales too melodic features tend to arise to compensate for the imbalance, but once again the final solution can be achieved only through replacement o f one of the unbalanced notes, thus leading to new scales. Passing over Kalyari that for the time being, let us look more closely at

Khamaj that:

Ex. 28. Khamaj that

Sa R e G a M a

D h a

Pa G a M a

In the ascending disjunct tetrachords of Khamaj, the thirds Sa-G a and Pa-Nib are unbalanced. This can be corrected either by replacing the Nib by a Nib, or the Gab by a Gab. The former returns to Bilaval that, while the latter leads to K afi that (No. A4). Both these have balanced ascending disjunct tetrachords and the imbalance is apparent in their descending conjunct tetrachords.

Ex. 29. Kafi that

Sa R e

I

In K afi that Sa-D ha is a descending m inor third, while Pa-Gab is a descending m ajor third. This can be corrected either by replacing the Gab by a Gab, or the Dhab

by a Dhab. The former returns to Khamaj that, while the latter introduces the new scale Asavri that (No. A 5 ):

Ex. 30. Asavri that

R e M a Dliab

In Asavri that the ascending disjunct tetrachords are unbalanced: Sa-R e is a m ajor second, while Pa-Dhab is a m inor second. This can be balanced either by replacing the Dhab with a Dhab, or the Reb with a Reb. The former returns to K afi

that, while the latter leads to Bhairvi that (No. A 6): Ex. 31. Bhairvi that

Sa Reb Gab M a [& , - ^ Pa Dhab a fry ^ Nib Sa . M a

In Bhairvi that the descending conjunct tetrachords are unbalanced; Sa-Pa is a descending perfect fourth, while Pa-Reb is a descending augmented fourth. This could be balanced either by replacing the Reb by a Reb, or the Pa by a Pab. The first course leads us back to Asavri that. In the second instance we are once again con­ fronted with the same difficulty we have faced so many times. The Pab is not permitted in Indian music.

We have once again arrived at a dead end. It will have been noticed th at the six scales we have covered are once again the six primary thats. We now return to a consideration o f Kalyan that:

Ex. 32. Kalycin that

Sa R e G a MaB D h a N i Sa

D h a

P a Mart Pa

The Effect o f Drones

In Kalyan that the ascending disjunct tetrachords are unbalanced: Sa-Ma? is an augmented fourth, while Pa-Sa is a perfect fourth. This could be corrected either by replacing the Ma? by a Man, or by replacing the Sa by a Sas. The former leads back to Bilaval that, while the latter is not permissible. Are we once again at a dead end ?

The musician, faced with this imbalance between Ma? and Sa in the ascending disjunct tetrachords which may not be solved by replacing the Sa with a Sa?, will naturally try to minimise its effect. One way this can be done is by the omission o f one