Characteristics of variables

Each type of quantitative research deals with variables that are manipulated (independent variables) and those that are measured (dependent variables) (Smith, 2004; Patton, 2002). Smith (2004) holds that the goals in an evaluation research are dependent variables which represent the

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outcomes one might see as a result of the intervention programme regarded as an independent variable.

3.4.2.1 Independent variable: the HOTS intervention programme

Prior to implementing the HOTS programme at school, teachers studied the materials of the HOTS programme under the continuing education programme (in-service training course) initiated by the Israeli Ministry of Education. The course was developed by so-called “subject’s chief supervisors” (college lecturers selected and trained for disseminating the new policies) on the grounds of a number of regulatory documents (Pedagogical horizons, 2007; Ministry of Education of Israel. Goals and Aims for Years 2009-2012) and the research conducted by a large number of Western and Israeli authors working in the field of HOTS.

The developers of the HOTS programme adopt a complex concept of HOTS that encompasses a range of cognitive and metacognitive skills and thinking dispositions which are considered necessary for students to be productive and competitive in the modern society (Yoad & Levin, 2007; Paul & Elder, 2006; Kuhn, 2005; ten Dam & Volman, 2004; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Goleman, 1995; Resnik, 1987). HOTS also refer to the ability of solving problems and making decisions by employing critical analysis and logical reasoning skills (Kuhn, 2005; Zohar and Dori 2003). The guidelines regarding the development of students’ thinking dispositions involve a range of activities the goals of which are to increase the student motivation and independent learning skills and develop social competence skills (ten Dam & Volman, 2004; Paul & Elder, 2002; Adele & Daniels, 1999; Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Goleman, 1995).

The programme adopts an ‘infusion’ approach whereby learning should be arranged to facilitate the use of HOTS across various content areas and beyond the school and to consider the development of HOTS as an explicit instruction target (Zohar & David, 2008; Yoad & Levin, 2007; Carr, 2007; Halpern, 1998). The programme emphasises the learning approaches based on an active involvement of students in learning process and construction of knowledge (Dean & Kuhn, 2003; Hofer & Pintrich, 2002; Jonassen, 2000; Vygotsky, 1978), and the role of the teacher as a facilitator of learning. The focus is put on solving real-world problems through guided and

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unguided enquiry (Jonassen, 1997; 2000), classroom discussions and brainstorming sessions, and developing students’ cognitive and social skills by the peer and cross-age tutoring.

The HOTS intervention programme shows the role of thinking strategies in developing the HOTS of students (Yoad & Levin, 2007; Schraw et al., 2006; Anderson, 2004; Perkins, 1992; Marzano et al., 1988). The programme developers use the term ‘strategy (instead of ‘skill’) because, as they claim, this makes the learner to focus on the action which targets a specific goal. For each strategy, a list of key words and expressions is displayed, representing “a language of thinking” in order to help students formulate an intellectual process involved. An emphasis is placed on developing metacognitive thinking which helps students use thinking strategies across various contexts and which makes links between new and established knowledge. It is recommended that teachers develop the plans, according to which students would organize their actions by employing thinking strategies, and use scaffolding as the means of assisting students to acquire HOTS.

The programme addresses the issues of summative and formative assessment practices (Zohar, 2008; Tamir, 2006; Ennis, 2002; Kohn, 2000). A great deal of importance is attached to a detailed teacher verbal and written feedbacks that are considered effective tools to asses s thinking dispositions to reasoning performance, student open-mindedness, and attitudes toward learning in general. Teachers are encouraged to exert more effort in their work with low academic achievers while implementing thinking strategies and various pedagogic techniques. The guidelines suggest using intensive scaffolding techniques that adjust the pace of activities to address students' needs, breaking up a complex task into simpler components, adding more examples, and peer coaching so that weaker students can learn from the more successful ones.

3.4.2.2 Dependent variables

The definitions of dependent variables used in this study are associated with the cognitive and affective (dispositional) domains of HOT presented first in Bloom’s taxonomy Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia 1965; Bloom, 1956) and developed in the more recent literature (Paul & Elder, 2002; Anderson et al., 2001; Facione, 2000; Goleman, 1995). In the current study, the cognitive domain is associated with the student’s cognitive and metacognitive skills applied to learning activities. The affective (dispositional) domain is related to student’s thinking dispositions to learning. The

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cognitive thinking skills of students and their thinking dispositions become the aims of pedagogical strategies which are represented by the four dependent variables associated with teachers’ pedagogical practices. Each of them contains a number of categories reflected in the corresponding questionnaire items (see appendices 3 and 4):

1 Student cognitive skills (4 categories; questionnaire items 1 – 11):

 the learner’s capacity of organizing the work on learning tasks (1, 2);

 controlling and modifying cognitive learning processes (meta-cognition) (3-5);

 formulating and solving problems (6-8);

 transferability of knowledge and skills (9-11).

2 Student thinking dispositions (7 categories; items 12 – 26)

 the level of the learner’s self-confidence (12-14);

 respect and tolerance of other’s beliefs (15, 16);

 attitude to a team work (17-19);

 pervasiveness of HOT (20-22);

 self-directed learning as indicator of learning motivation (23-24);

 the influence of positive emotions on learning motivation (25);

 students’ civic responsibility (26).

3 Methods for developing cognitive skills of students (6 categories; items 1 – 14):

 teaching students to properly organize the work on the learning tasks (1,2);

 fostering metacognition skills (3-4);

 developing reasoning and argumentation skills and tackling problems requiring alternative solutions (5-7);

 developing thinking creativity by encouraging divergent thinking (8-10);

 instilling HOTS in low achievement students (11, 12).

 increasing the transferability of thinking skills (13-14).

4 Methods for developing student thinking dispositions (6 categories; items 15 - 25):

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 involving students in a team-thinking process guided by the teacher (17-21);

 educating independent and motivated learners (22);

 the use of student’s positive emotions for increasing learning motivation (23);

 promoting tolerance of others’ beliefs (24);

 developing students’ civic responsibility (25).

One can see that a great deal of attention is paid to the role of the student thinking dispositions which are claimed to be an important part of critical thinking (Paul & Elder, 2006; Facione et al., 2000) and be of importance for a citizenship competence (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005; Dam & Volman, 2004). The disposition-related variables also include positive emotions (feelings of satisfaction/joy) that result from the successful accomplishment of a learning/pedagogical task and which are claimed to create motivation towards further actions (Elder, 1996; Goleman, 1995).