Classroom Observations

In order to identify the nature of peer interaction, information was collected through classroom observations. The observation data show how participants behaved in the processes of pair work. Van Lier’s (1988) rationale for implementing classroom observation is that researchers - even teachers - actually have limited knowledge of what goes on in classrooms, and it is relevant and valuable to increase that knowledge. In my case, I am already present as a teacher, but it is hard to notice the details of what goes on there. This can only happen by actually going into classrooms for data. In a similar vein, Robson (2002) explains that the primary advantage of observation is its directness; it tells researchers what goes on in the classroom, and enables a close, rigorous examination of interaction; the researchers are able to watch what people do and listen to what they say, as distinct from what people say they do. As Robson states, real life in the real world would be shown within the natural settings of the classrooms.

As stated earlier, my role in this research was a classroom inquirer. As an insider, I could not occupy the role of external observer. Instead I became a participant-observer in that I observed my students’ learning - particularly peer interaction - as participants in my lessons. Participant observation may be a particularly useful tool of study when

the primary interest is in gathering detailed information about what is happening (Cohen et al., 2007). By being immersed in a particular context, Morrison (1993, cited in Cohen et al., 2007) argues that the relevant features of the situation will emerge and a more holistic view will be gathered of the interrelationship factors. Such emergent features assist in studying ‘the generation of social processes and interaction which lend themselves to accurate explanation and interpretation of events rather than relying on the researcher’s own inferences’ (Cohen et al., 2007, p.405). Hence, the data derived from participant observation are strongly related to reality, i.e. what actually goes on there.

However, Yin (2009, p.113) illustrates the potential bias produced by participant- observation stating that ‘the participant role may simply require too much attention relative to the observer role’. It means that the observer may not have enough time to take field notes or may experience difficulties in attempting to be in the right place at the right time in order to observe important events. From a practical perspective, it was difficult to lecture and oversee student conversations simultaneously. Even when undertaking activities in pairs one can only focus on those students participating in the research, but my responsibility as a lecturer was to involve the whole class, not just the research participants. Otherwise it would be unfair to those students not involved in the research. So, in order to collect conversational data relating to participant peer-to-peer interaction, audio recordings were used to complement the limitation of the participant- observer role.

3.6.1.1. Audio Recording and Transcriptions

Audio recordings are helpful in showing what conversations actually take place between participants. Silverman (2005, 2006) suggests three distinct advantages of audio recordings and transcripts, when citing Sacks’ answers to the question of why he

prefers to audio-record rather than rely just on written notes. First, audio-recordings are ‘a public record, available to the scientific community’ (2005. p.184) that field notes alone cannot provide. Audio-recordings provide a record of detailed conversations that I might miss while teaching. Second, the recorded data can be replayed in

transcriptions. The transcription process is time consuming, but it is worth it in order to fully understand the recorded data. As Silverman points out, the preparation of

transcripts was not simply a technical detail prior to analysis of data. Rather, processing the transcripts was itself a research activity: I could repeatedly listen to recordings in order to find previously unnoticed recurring features which I could study again and gain. A third advantage is that recorded data shows sequences of

utterances. In this study, sequences of conversation were crucial for data analysis as this could illustrate how interaction took place and enabled me to make sense of the conversation within the sequences.

On the other hand, there is some criticism that data based on audio recordings are not complete. When the data is analysed, physical motions such as facial expressions are neglected because the audio-recorded data cannot present them. As Sacks points out, ‘there cannot be totally “completed” data any more’ (Sacks, 1992, p.26, cited in

Silverman, 2006). Silverman (2006) advises researchers not to worry that the research method chosen may not be able to cover all issues because all methods have their own peculiar advantages and disadvantages. What we need to do is to choose research methods that have minimal disadvantages when finding out answers about research questions. Therefore, in order to keep any disadvantages to a minimum, I took observation notes, particularly on any salient features of interaction while participants were doing tasks in pairs, in addition to audio-recording them.

The audio-recordings detailed ample live incidents of peer interaction: i.e. how learners set their goal to do an activity, how they discussed activity management, how they

initiated interaction with their peer and how they responded to each other. The data showed the dialogue between participants. However, this is based on the premise that the behaviour itself has ‘no double meaning, hidden meaning or confusion associated with it’ (Denscombe, 2007, p.215). That is, dealing with the intentions or perceptions of students’ behaviour through classroom observations is difficult in itself and the

limitations of recorded data is that it may not reveal any obfuscated meanings when trying to find answers to how interaction is used in learning. Another method is

therefore desirable to find satisfactory answers to how learners perceive and interpret peer interaction and how this interaction assists their learning.