As clauses and result clauses

As already noted, a major difference observed between kind such and "degree" such

refers to the type of clauses they can correlate with: as-clauses and result clauses, respectively. The following examples illustrate the claimed restriction of as-clauses to the kind reading of such, and that of result that-clauses to its degree reading:124

(23) a. Such women as we met yesterday are a credit to society. b. He is such a fool that I cannot trust him!

This generally accepted correlation has accordingly guided the analyses of these types of clauses. Thus, as-clauses have been analysed in the context of accounts of kind such, as was shown in the previous sub-section. They can be taken either to directly supply the kind associated with such, or to help identify it by providing a

restriction on the kind variable associated with such (cf. Carlson 1977, Landman 2006). Result clauses, on the other hand, have been analysed as arguments of the degree operator, in a parallel way to the infinitivalclause correlated with enough or to other degree constructions involving correlate subordinate clauses (cf. Meier 2003).

In this sub-section, however, we show that, in fact, the distribution of as-clauses and result clauses is not a solid argument in favour of postulating two fundamentally different lexical itemsthat would each be specified as selecting one or the other. There are two (empirical) arguments supporting this claim: on the one hand, we may find as-clauses with high degree readings of such; on the other hand, result clauses seem to be possible with neutral, kind interpretations of such. The following examples illustrate the former point:125,126

(24) a. It is really a joke to try to reason with such an idiot as you!127

b. How can you expect such an idiot as I am to say anything but idiotic things?128

c. It was such a quantity as you would hesitate to accept.

In (24)a and (24)b, such an idiot can be interpreted as 'so (very) idiotic' and, at the same time, a comparison is made: 'as idiotic as you/ me'. In connection with (24)c, Bolinger (1972) points out that the example can get either a kind or a degree interpretation. In fact, it is hard in these examples to distinguish between a degree reading and a kind reading.

Conversely, result clauses seem to be possible with neutral, kind interpretations of such, both in its usual attributive use, as in (25), and in predicative position, as in (26):

(25) a. The statute defining this offence imposes punishment on any person who wilfully or unlawfully causes or permits any child under the age of sixteen years to be placed in such a situation that the life or limb of the child is endangered…129

125 _{Note that there is also a different type of as-clause, infinitivals, illustrated in (i). These as to-clauses} should be distinguished from regular as-clauses and are in fact more similar to result clauses. It should be noted, however, that in the proposal we will make in section 3, result clauses will be in fact analysed as identifying a particular sort of sub-kind too.

(i) a. Next time I won't be such an idiot as to put the wrong barring password in three times. b. "What!" says Jack's mother, "have you been such a fool, such a dolt, such an idiot, as to

give away my Milky-white, the best milker in the parish, and prime beef to boot, for a set of paltry beans?!" (Jack and the beanstalk)

c. They got out £600 from a card with my name on it; but who would be such an idiot as to let them use it?

d. She was not such an idiot as to believe what he was saying.

They are also similar to the infinitival complements which certain nouns or adjectives can take and which are used to give a reason for passing a judgment:

(ii) You are a fool to believe such a thing! 126 _{Example (24)c is from Bolinger (1972).}

127 _{Source: http://www.wallstreetsurvivor.com/CS/forums/t/39082.aspx} 128 _{Source: W. M. Thackeray – The Virginians}

DEGREES AND KINDS 107 b. It's ridiculous that our footballers should be put in such a situation that

there is a possibility of serious injuries.130

c. …the act must be of such character and done in such a situation that the actor should reasonably have anticipated that some injury to another would probably result.131

d. To organise society in such a way that every member of it can develop and use all his capabilities and powers in complete freedom and without thereby infringing the basic conditions of this society.132

e. Live in such a way that you would not be ashamed to sell your parrot to the town gossip.133

f. I found myself surrounded by such circumstances and such people that I knew not whom to trust.134

(26) a. The employment situation of Singapore in the 1960s was such that workers found themselves in a position where they could not be choosy.135

b. The disease was such that no treatment was possible...136

c. … the hat that lay by him on the floor (he was the only one uncovered) was such that if one had considered it as an article of mere personal adornment he would have missed its meaning.137

d. Public opinion in Finland during the spring 1941 was such that it would have been extremely difficult for any government to explain…138

e. The design of the portable tank was such that the bottom of the valve structure, vent fittings and shell insulation all sat below the line…139

These facts indicate that the distribution of as-clauses and result clauses is wider than usually claimed and cross-cuts the distinction between the neutral, kind and (high) degree interpretations of such. This may be taken to suggest that the noted distinction may simply be a matter of preference. That is, it may be that result clauses are particularly (but not exclusively) felicitous when the main clause expresses a situation which may be easily conceived of as entailing some sort of consequence; this is the case, for example, when there is an expression of high degree, especially one implying excess. Looking at the facts in this way might help us begin to understand the privileged relationship between the expression of (high) degree and result clauses, as it is manifested cross-linguistically (i.e. result clauses are more often than not associated with expressions of [high] degree), in spite of the fact that consequence is not necessarily, logically speaking, dependent on an expression of (high) degree.

130 _{Source: http://education.theage.com.au/cmspage.php?intid=135&intversion=31} 131 _{Source: http://www.4lawschool.com/torts/williams.htm}

132 _{Source: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume06/footnote.htm#69}

133 _{Source: Will Rogers, US humorist and showman (1879 – 1935) (at http://www.quotationspage.com/)} 134 _{Adapted from http://www.state.il.us/HPA/facsimiles.htm}

135 _{Source: stars.nhb.gov.sg/stars/tmp/ygce19810811s.pdf} 136 _{Source: http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/plague.htm}

137 _{Source: A. Bierce – Can such things be? (http://bierce.thefreelibrary.com/Can-Such-Things-Be/22-1)} 138 _{Source: http://www.kevos4.com/Part13 Was the Continuation War Unavoidable.htm}

We can conclude at this point that the distribution of as-clauses and result clauses cannot be used as an argument in favour of a split between two different lexical items, a kind-referring expression and a degree operator: their distribution does not coincide with this interpretation-based distinction.140 _{The exemplifying}

function of as-clauses and the consequential meaning of result clauses do not correlate with or depend on one or the other interpretation of use of such. However, it is still the case that e.g. result clauses are not generally available with such (e.g.

*He's such a person that I cannot trust him.). Understanding the contribution of result clauses will be instrumental to providing a comprehensive account of the semantics of such, as will become clear when we present our proposal in the next section.