Climatic context and livelihoods 1 Physical characteristics and climate

The altitude of the target area ranges between 900 and 1,600 mt above sea level. The majority of the area is classified as kolla (lowland) and a very small proportion of the land is woina dega (mid highland), which can be found mainly in Dire woreda. Concerning the native vegetation, plant communities consist of a different mixture of woody and herbaceous vegetation, which can define an environment of tropical savannah. Except along the Dawa River, there are no seasonally flooded areas and catchments which could support riverine vegetation or gallery forest. The target area lacks reliable surface water during most of the year (Coppock, 1994) and also a constant rainfall: the area is characterised by high variability in rainfall from one year to the other, which makes crops growing uncertain.

The primary production in the area is limited, mainly as a result of the climate. The amount of land cultivated is quite low, less than 25%, so livestock herding is still perceived as the most efficient utilisation of the rangeland. In Moyale Oromia woreda almost all the rural population relies on livestock and agriculture. In Dire and Moyale Somali woreda most of the rural population is pastoralist, with some agro-pastoralist inlands (Mega and Hidilola in Dire and Dokisu area in Moyale Somali).

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In particular, in Somali Moyale woreda the majority of the population is pastoral and only in the south (Kadaduma and Dokisu areas) are they agro-pastoralists. Somehow in continuity with the chain of hills found in the south of Somali Moyale woreda, there is Oromia Moyale woreda (hilly area bordering Kenya), of which the population is nearly all agro-pastoral. The main centre is Tuka. In Lagasure Kebele, Did-Guchi area can be considered pastoralist and it is inhabited mainly by Gabbra. Finally, in Dire area, it is possible to differentiate two main agro-pastoralist areas. One is the area around Hidilola, which recently become the capital village of the new established Miyo woreda, which is again in continuity with the Tuka hilly area. The other main agro-pastoralist area is Mega, around Mega Mountains. All of the remaining population of Dire and Miyo woreda can be considered pastoralist. A second distinction can be applied to Dire pastoral areas. The western part is poor in infrastructure and therefore has less access to the market (mainly in Mega and Dubluk); the eastern part usually has good access to the market, either directly or through well served secondary roads329. Annual mean rainfall in the Borana Plateau varies from about 440 mm to 1100 mm, with an overall average of 700 mm. The area to the east, Moyale Somali, is reported to receive less rainfall compared to the west side, having sites where the annual mean does not exceed 200 mm330.

Compared to rainfall, air temperature varies much less throughout the year, from 18° to 27°C. Each year has four seasons. In the following list, the different seasons are given with the local names (in oromifa language):

Bonna (long dry season – December to March) Ganna (long rainy season – April to June) Adolessa (short dry season – July to September) Hagaya (short rainy season – October to November)

The Ganna long rainy season is the most important for pastoralist and agriculturalists in Oromia side. The population harvests twice in a good year. On the Oromia side farmers plant maize, wheat, barley, pulses, sorghum and teff in the ganna. Crops are usually harvested in June and July. The short rainy season hagaya falls between October and November: haricot beans, maize and teff are the most important crops planted at this time. If the rainfall is sufficient, farmers plant wheat in addition to the other crops. Hagaya crops are harvested in November and December. On the Somali side, rains are vital for improving water availability and regenerating pastures for animals.

329 _{Cassini R., Local economy in Moyale area, Pastoralism and Agropastoralism, LVIA August 2003.} 330

137 4.2.2 Farming activities in the studied area

Contrary to some other pastoral areas of Ethiopia, the Moyale area is not gifted by the presence of permanent surface water (if not marginally the Dawa River). Therefore it does not experience conflict with permanent farmers or with big private or governmental agro- industrial farms for exploiting the water. Moreover agriculture is still carried out mainly by the same people who own the animals. Similarly no national park or wildlife sanctuary was instituted in the area331. At the beginning of the Derg, settlements among pastoralists started to take place: trees were cut, many villages increased in size and people started to live in permanent houses. In places where pastoralists settled and created permanent villages, they also started farming activities in order to integrate household income. In recent times this phenomenon is becoming more common. Based on observations and discussions with woreda experts, farming activities are not predominant but they may represent a significant income source in a few areas where the average rainfall is higher. Otherwise in other cases, it does not have a real value for the household economy. It is worth mention that the increase of settled agricultural communities implied the erosion of resources used by pastoralists, and especially the more fertile lands utilised as dry or drought pastures. Agricultural activities and more rigid tenure rights based on the introduction of private ownership can bring the risk of subtracting vital dry season and drought resources away from pastoral use332.

In Moyale Somali, where the settlement process was generally facilitated by UNHCR and other humanitarian interventions, farming capacity is scarce with a poor harvest, while in many cases the input costs (cash and labour) are quite high. In particular in the El Leh area (El Leh and El Gof kebeles) farming is considered a side activity. Kebeles as Katama, El Der, Chilanko, Jara, Galgalu, Hawan, El Nyapo are characterised by very low rainfall and few farmers.

In Oromia side, agriculture activity is more developed and important, compared to the Somali side. The number of agriculture products (fruit, vegetables or crop) and quantities produced are higher, mainly in some specific agro-pastoral area. This is the result of a higher level of yearly rainfall and of the resettlement programmes which took place both during Haile Selassie I and Derg times, when some people from the northern highlands moved to the dry lands. In Borana zone small towns like Hidilola, Mega, Dubluk, Bokuluboma were colonised

331 _{By the way, in Somali side it is currently under discussion the opportunity to establish a wildlife park.} 332

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by agriculturalists. Moyale town and its surroundings were also targeted by these resettlement programs333.

4.3 Local resources and market/transport infrastructures