Correct procedure and diagnosis coding is critical for uti- lization review and outcome assessment, both of which are used to determine effectiveness of care. For example, a CPT- 4 utilization review can be mapped to specific diagnosis codes to ensure compliance with care pathways. DRG can
be mapped to the clinical outcome (e.g., survival) to deter- mine effectiveness of inpatient care, or DRG can be mapped to the inpatient expense outlay to determine the financial outcome. These are issues which have assumed increasing importance under a new pay-for-performance Medicare reimbursement system. In the case of upper respiratory tract infections, procedure code data may also be used to evaluate compliance with standards of care (e.g., reflex to GAS culture when RADTs are negative for pediatric but not adult patients) or even to assess the performances of individual clinical laboratory scientists by comparing results on more than one procedure performed on a single date of service (e.g., RADT and culture for GAS). There- fore, correct coding has utility not only in ensuring appro- priate reimbursement, but also in evaluating the cost and clinical effectiveness of medical care, including the appro- priateness of testing.
REFERENCES
1. Aliyu, S. H., R. K. Marriott, M. D. Curran, S. Parmar, N. Bentley, N. M. Brown, J. S. Brazier, and H. Lud- lam. 2004. Real-time PCR investigation into the importance of Fusobacterium necrophorum as a cause of acute pharyngitis in general practice. J. Med. Micro- biol. 53:1029–1035.
2. Al-Serhani, A. M. 2001. Mycobacterial infection of the head and neck: presentation and diagnosis. Laryn- goscope 111:2012–2016.
2a. American Medical Association. 2005. Current Proce- dural Terminology: CPT 2005, professional ed. AMA Press, Chicago, Ill.
2b. American Medical Association. 2005. International Classification of Diseases, 9th rev., Clinical Modifica- tion, vol. 1 and 2. Physician ICD-9-CM. AMA Press, Chicago, Ill.
3. Anonymous. 2004. Summary of notifiable disease— United States. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 51:1–88. 4. Balmelli, C., and H. F. Gunthard. 2003. Gonococcal
tonsillar infection—a case report and literature review. Infection 31:362–365.
5. Bannatyne, R. M., C. Clausen, and L. R. McCarthy. 1979. Cumitech 10, Laboratory Diagnosis of Upper Respiratory Tract Infections. Coordinating ed., I. B. R. Duncan. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
6. Bannerman, T. L. 2003. Staphylococcus and Micro- coccus and other catalase-positive cocci that grow aer- obically, p. 384–404. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
7. Baron, E. J., M. P. Weinstein, W. M. Dunne, Jr., P. Yagupsky, D. F. Welch, and D. M. Wilson. 2005. Cumitech 1C, Blood Cultures IV. Coordinating ed., E. J. Baron. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
8. Bartkus, J. M., B. A. Juni, K. Ehresmann, C. A. Miller, G. N. Sanden, P. K. Cassiday, M. Saubolle, B. Lee, J. Long, A. R. Harrison, Jr., and J. M. Besser. 2003.
Identification of a mutation associated with erythro- mycin resistance in Bordetella pertussis: implications for surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:1167–1172.
9. Bernet, C., M. Garret, B. de Barbeyrac, C. Bebear, and J. Bonnet. 1989. Detection of Mycoplasma pneumoni- ae by using the polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27:2492–2496.
10. Bisgard, K., F. B. Pascual, T. Tiwari, and T. V. Mur- phy. 2002, posting date. Surveillance Manual for Vac- cine Preventable Diseases, 3rd ed., Chapter 8. [Online.] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga. http://www.cdc.gov/nip/publications/ surv-manual/chpt08_pertussis.pdf.
11. Bisgard, K. M., F. B. Pascual, K. R. Ehresmann, C. A. Miller, C. Cianfrini, C. E. Jennings, C. A. Rebmann, J. Gabel, S. L. Schauer, and S. M. Lett. 2004. Infant per- tussis: who was the source? Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23: 985–989.
12. Bisno, A. L. 1996. Acute pharyngitis: etiology and diagnosis. Pediatrics 97:949–954.
13. Bisno, A. L., M. A. Gerber, J. M. Gwaltney, Jr., E. L. Kaplan, and R. H. Schwartz. 2002. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of group A strepto- coccal pharyngitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35:113–125. 14. Block, S. L., M. R. Hammerschlag, J. Hedrick, R.
Tyler, A. Smith, P. Roblin, C. Gaydos, D. Pham, T. C. Quinn, R. Palmer, and J. McCarty. 1997. Chlamydia pneumoniae in acute otitis media. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 16:858–862.
15. Bosley, G. S., A. M. Whitney, J. M. Pruckler, C. W. Moss, M. Daneshvar, T. Sih, and D. F. Talkington. 1995. Characterization of ear fluid isolates of Alloio- coccus otitidis from patients with recurrent otitis media. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33:2876–2880.
16. Bourbeau, P. P. 2003. Role of the microbiology labo- ratory in diagnosis and management of pharyngitis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:3467–3472.
17. Boustred, N. 1999. Practical guide to otitis externa. Aust. Fam. Physician 28:217–221.
18. Breese, B. B., and F. A. Disney. 1954. The accuracy of diagnosis of beta streptococcal infections on clinical grounds. J. Pediatr. 44:670–673.
19. Brook, I. 1995. Role of anaerobic bacteria in chronic otitis media and cholesteatoma. Int. J. Pediatr. Oto- rhinolaryngol. 31:153–157.
20. Brook, I., E. H. Frazier, and D. H. Thompson. 1992. Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of external otitis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 15:955–958.
21. Browning, D. G., D. A. Schwartz, and R. L. Jurado. 1992. Cryptococcosis of the larynx in a patient with AIDS: an unusual cause of fungal laryngitis. South. Med. J. 85:762–764.
22. Campbell, L. A., M. Perez Melgosa, D. J. Hamilton, C. C. Kuo, and J. T. Grayston. 1992. Detection of
Chlamydia pneumoniae by polymerase chain reaction. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30:434–439.
23. Campos, J. 2004. Group A streptococcus culture and direct antigen detection, p. 3.11.8.1–3.11.8.7. In H. D. Isenberg (ed. in chief), Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washing- ton, D.C.
24. Carlson, P., O. V. Renkonen, and S. Kontiainen. 1994. Arcanobacterium haemolyticum and streptococcal pharyngitis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 26:283–287. 25. Carrie, S., and P. A. Fenton. 1994. Necrobacillosis—
an unusual case of pharyngotonsillitis. J. Laryngol. Otol. 108:1097–1098.
26. Carroll, K., and L. Reimer. 1996. Microbiology and laboratory diagnosis of upper respiratory tract infec- tions. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23:442–448.
27. Cartwright, K. 2001. Microbiology and laboratory methods, p. 1–8. In A. J. Pollard and M. C. J. Maiden (ed.), Methods in Molecular Medicine Series, Men- ingococcal Disease, Methods and Protocols. Humana Press, Totowa, N.J.
27a. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. 2005. National Correct Coding Policy Manual for Part B Medicare Carriers. National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va.
28. Cernoch, P. L., R. K. Enns, M. A. Saubolle, and R. J. Wallace, Jr. 1994. Cumitech 16A, Laboratory Diagno- sis of the Mycobacterioses. Coordinating ed., A. S. Weissfeld. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
29. Chambers, H. F. 1997. Methicillin resistance in staphy- lococci: molecular and biochemical basis and clinical implications. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 10:781–791. 30. Chen, Y., R. Colodner, B. Chazan, and R. Raz. 2005.
Pharyngotonsillitis due to Arcanobacterium haemoly- ticum in Northern Israel. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 7:241– 242.
31. Coleman, D. C., D. E. Bennett, D. J. Sullivan, P. J. Gallagher, M. C. Henman, D. B. Shanley, and R. J. Russell. 1993. Oral Candida in HIV infection and AIDS: new perspectives/new approaches. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 19:61–82.
32. Cooper, R. J., J. R. Hoffman, J. G. Bartlett, R. E. Besser, R. Gonzales, J. M. Hickner, and M. A. Sande. 2001. Principles of appropriate antibiotic use for acute pharyngitis in adults: background. Ann. Emerg. Med. 37:711–719.
33. Cunningham, M. W. 2000. Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13: 470–511.
34. Dagan, R. 2004. The potential effect of widespread use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines on the prac- tice of pediatric otolaryngology: the case of acute oti- tis media. Curr. Opin. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 12:488–494.
35. Daxboeck, F., R. Krause, and C. Wenisch. 2003. Lab- oratory diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infec- tion. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9:263–273.
36. Dowell, S. F., R. W. Peeling, J. Boman, G. M. Carlone, B. S. Fields, J. Guarner, M. R. Hammerschlag, L. A. Jackson, C. C. Kuo, M. Maass, T. O. Messmer, D. F. Talkington, M. L. Tondella, and S. R. Zaki. 2001. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: recom- mendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Dis- ease Control (Canada). Clin. Infect. Dis. 33:492–503. 37. Erkan, M., T. Aslan, E. Sevuk, and E. Guney. 1994. Bacteriology of chronic suppurative otitis media. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 103:771–774.
38. Esposito, S., F. Blasi, S. Bosis, R. Droghetti, N. Faelli, A. Lastrico, and N. Principi. 2004. Aetiology of acute pharyngitis: the role of atypical bacteria. J. Med. Microbiol. 53:645–651.
39. Esposito, S., R. Cavagna, S. Bosis, R. Droghetti, N. Faelli, and N. Principi. 2002. Emerging role of Myco- plasma pneumoniae in children with acute pharyngi- tis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21:607–610. 40. Facklam, R. 2002. What happened to the streptococ-
ci: overview of taxonomic and nomenclature changes. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 15:613–630.
41. Falck, G., I. Engstrand, A. Gad, J. Gnarpe, H. Gnarpe, and A. Laurila. 1997. Demonstration of Chlamydia pneumoniae in patients with chronic pharyngitis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 29:585–589.
42. Feingold, M. H., and M. L. Kumar. 2004. Otitis media associated with Vibrio alginolyticus in a child with pressure-equalizing tubes. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23: 475–476.
43. Fry, N. K., O. Tzivra, Y. T. Li, A. McNiff, N. Doshi, P. A. Maple, N. S. Crowcroft, E. Miller, R. C. George, and T. G. Harrison. 2004. Laboratory diagnosis of pertussis infections: the role of PCR and serology. J. Med. Microbiol. 53:519–525.
44. Funke, G., and K. A. Bernard. 2003. Coryneform gram-positive rods, p. 472–501. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
45. Funke, G., F. N. Renaud, J. Freney, and P. Riegel. 1997. Multicenter evaluation of the updated and extended API (RAPID) Coryne database 2.0. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35:3122–3126.
46. Gaydos, C. A., T. C. Quinn, and J. J. Eiden. 1992. Identification of Chlamydia pneumoniae by DNA amplification of the 16S rRNA gene. J. Clin. Microbi- ol. 30:796–800.
47. Gerber, M. A., and S. T. Shulman. 2004. Rapid diag- nosis of pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17:571–580.
47a. Gilchrist, M. J. R., W. P. McKinney, J. M. Miller, and A. S. Weissfeld. 2000. Cumitech 33, Laboratory Safe- ty, Management, and Diagnosis of Biological Agents
Associated with Bioterrorism. Coordinating ed., J. W. Snyder. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
48. Gilligan, P. H., J. M. Janda, M. A. Karmali, and J. M. Miller. 1992. Cumitech 12A, Laboratory Diagnosis of Bacterial Diarrhea. Coordinating ed., F. S. Nolte. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. 49. Gonzalez, C. E., M. G. Rinaldi, and A. M. Sugar. 2002. Zygomycosis. Infect. Dis. Clin. N. Am. 16:895–914. 50. Groothuis, J. R., J. Thompson, and P. F. Wright. 1986.
Correlation of nasopharyngeal and conjunctival cul- tures with middle ear fluid cultures in otitis media. A prospective study. Clin. Pediatr. 25:85–88.
51. Guris, D., P. M. Strebel, B. Bardenheier, M. Brennan, R. Tachdjian, E. Finch, M. Wharton, and J. R. Liven- good. 1999. Changing epidemiology of pertussis in the United States: increasing reported incidence among adolescents and adults, 1990–1996. Clin. Infect. Dis. 28:1230–1237.
52. Hammerschlag, M. R. 1994. Antimicrobial suscepti- bility and therapy of infections caused by Chlamy- dia pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 38: 1873–1878.
53. Hammerschlag, M. R. 2000. The role of Chlamydia in upper respiratory tract infections. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 2:115–120.
54. Hazen, K. C., and S. A. Howell. 2003. Candida, Cryp- tococcus, and other yeasts of medical importance, p. 1693–1711. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jor- gensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Wash- ington, D.C.
55. Heininger, U., J. D. Cherry, and K. Stehr. 2004. Sero- logic response and antibody-titer decay in adults with pertussis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38:591–594.
56. Heininger, U., K. Stehr, S. Schmitt-Grohe, C. Lorenz, R. Rost, P. D. Christenson, M. Uberall, and J. D. Cherry. 1994. Clinical characteristics of illness caused by Bordetella parapertussis compared with illness caused by Bordetella pertussis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 13:306–309.
57. Higgins, P. B. 1974. Viruses associated with acute res- piratory infections 1961–71. J. Hyg. 72:425–432. 58. Hill, B. C., C. N. Baker, and F. C. Tenover. 2000. A
simplified method for testing Bordetella pertussis for resistance to erythromycin and other antimicrobial agents. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:1151–1155.
59. Hoge, C. W., B. Schwartz, D. F. Talkington, R. F. Breiman, E. M. MacNeill, and S. J. Englender. 1993. The changing epidemiology of invasive group A strep- tococcal infections and the emergence of streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome. A retrospective popula- tion-based study. JAMA 269:384–389.
60. Huletsky, A., P. Lebel, F. J. Picard, M. Bernier, M. Gagnon, N. Boucher, and M. G. Bergeron. 2005. Identification of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus carriage in less than 1 hour during a hospital surveillance program. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40:976–981. 61. Ibekwe, A. O., Z. al Shareef, and A. Benayam. 1997.
Anaerobes and fungi in chronic suppurative otitis media. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 106:649–652. 62. Janda, W. M., and J. S. Knapp. 2003. Neisseria and
Moraxella catarrhalis, p. 585–608. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
63. Jousimies-Somer, H. R., P. H. Summanen, D. M. Cit- ron, E. J. Baron, H. M. Wexler, and S. M. Finegold. 2002. Wadsworth Anaerobic Bacteriology Manual, 6th ed. Star Publishing Co., Belmont, Calif.
64. Kalcioglu, M. T., S. Oncel, R. Durmaz, B. Otlu, M. C. Miman, and O. Ozturan. 2002. Bacterial etiology of otitis media with effusion; focusing on the high posi- tivity of Alloiococcus otitidis. New Microbiol. 25:31– 35.
65. Karkos, P. D., A. Karkanevatos, S. Panagea, A. Dingle, and J. E. Davies. 2004. Lemierre’s syndrome: how a sore throat can end in disaster. Eur. J. Emerg. Med. 11: 228–230.
66. Katzko, G., M. Hofmeister, and D. Church. 1996. Extended incubation of culture plates improves recov- ery of Bordetella spp. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34:1563– 1564.
67. Kellogg, J. A. 1990. Suitability of throat culture pro- cedures for detection of group A streptococci and as reference standards for evaluation of streptococcal antigen detection kits. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28:165–169. 68. Kilian, M. 2003. Haemophilus, p. 623–635. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiol- ogy, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
69. Kotikoski, M. J., M. Kleemola, and A. A. Palmu. 2004. No evidence of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in acute myringitis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 23:465–466. 70. Lafferty, W. E., J. P. Hughes, and H. H. Handsfield.
1997. Sexually transmitted diseases in men who have sex with men. Acquisition of gonorrhea and nongono- coccal urethritis by fellatio and implications for STD/HIV prevention. Sex. Transm. Dis. 24:272–278. 71. Lawson, R., G. Bodey, and M. Luna. 1980. Case
report: Candida infection presenting as laryngitis. Am. J. Med. Sci. 280:173–177.
72. Leskinen, K., P. Hendolin, A. Virolainen-Julkunen, J. Ylikoski, and J. Jero. 2004. Alloiococcus otitidis in acute otitis media. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 68:51–56.
73. Leskinen, K., P. Hendolin, A. Virolainen-Julkunen, J. Ylikoski, and J. Jero. 2002. The clinical role of Alloio- coccus otitidis in otitis media with effusion. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 66:41–48.
74. Lewis, K., M. A. Saubolle, F. C. Tenover, M. F. Rudin- sky, S. D. Barbour, and J. D. Cherry. 1995. Pertussis
caused by an erythromycin-resistant strain of Borde- tella pertussis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 14:388–391. 75. Lieberth, A. S., T. Ganiats, E. O. Cox, L. Culpepper,
M. Mahoney, D. Miller, E. K. Runyan, N. L. Shapiro, and E. R. Wald. 2004. Diagnosis and management of acute otitis media. Pediatrics 113:1451–1465. 76. Limjoco-Antonio, A. D., W. M. Janda, and P. C.
Schreckenberger. 2003. Arcanobacterium haemoly- ticum sinusitis and orbital cellulitis. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22:465–467.
77. Loeffelholz, M. J. 2003. Bordetella, p. 780–788. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfall- er, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Micro- biology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C. 78. Loens, K., D. Ursi, H. Goossens, and M. Ieven. 2003.
Molecular diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae res- piratory tract infections. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:4915– 4923.
79. Lu, H. Z., X. H. Weng, B. Zhu, H. Li, Y. K. Yin, Y. X. Zhang, D. W. Haas, and Y. W. Tang. 2003. Major out- break of toxic shock-like syndrome caused by Strepto- coccus mitis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41:3051–3055. 80. Mackenzie, A., L. A. Fuite, F. T. Chan, J. King, U.
Allen, N. MacDonald, and F. Diaz-Mitoma. 1995. Inci- dence and pathogenicity of Arcanobacterium haemo- lyticum during a 2-year study in Ottawa. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21:177–181.
81. Madico, G., T. C. Quinn, J. Boman, and C. A. Gaydos. 2000. Touchdown enzyme time release-PCR for detec- tion and identification of Chlamydia trachomatis, C. pneumoniae, and C. psittaci using the 16S and 16S- 23S spacer rRNA genes. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:1085– 1093.
82. Mattila, P. S., and P. Carlson. 1998. Pharyngolaryngi- tis caused by Neisseria meningitidis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30:198–200.
83. Mayes, T., and M. E. Pichichero. 2001. Are follow-up throat cultures necessary when rapid antigen detection tests are negative for group A streptococci? Clin. Pedi- atr. 40:191–195.
84. McDonald, J. A., and F. T. Saulsbury. 1997. Chronic Candida albicans otitis media in children with immun- odeficiency. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 16:529–531. 85. McEwan, J., W. Giridharan, R. W. Clarke, and P.
Shears. 2003. Paediatric acute epiglottitis: not a disap- pearing entity. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 67: 317–321.
86. McMillan, J. A., C. Sandstrom, L. B. Weiner, B. A. Forbes, M. Woods, T. Howard, L. Poe, K. Keller, R. M. Corwin, and J. W. Winkelman. 1986. Viral and bacterial organisms associated with acute pharyngitis in a school-aged population. J. Pediatr. 109:747–752. 87. Miller, R. A., F. Brancato, and K. K. Holmes. 1986. Corynebacterium haemolyticum as a cause of pharyn- gitis and scarlatiniform rash in young adults. Ann. Intern. Med. 105:867–872.
88. Murdoch, D. R. 2003. Nucleic acid amplification tests for the diagnosis of pneumonia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36: 1162–1170.
89. Murray, P. R., K. S. Rosenthal, G. S. Kobayashi, and M. A. Pfaller. 2002. Medical Microbiology, 4th ed., p. 176–184. Mosby, St. Louis, Mo.
90. Nasri, S., L. D. True, and E. Abemayor. 1995. Upper airway obstruction caused by group G streptococcal laryngitis. Am. J. Otolaryngol. 16:53–55.
91. Odds, F. C. 1988. Candida and Candidosis, 2nd ed. Bailliere Tindall, London, United Kingdom.
91a. Office of the Inspector General. 1998. Compliance program guidance for clinical laboratories. Fed. Reg- ist. 63:45076–45087.
92. Ohuabunwo, C. J., K. M. Bisgard, T. Popovic, and M. Warton. 2002, posting date. Surveillance Manual for Vaccine Preventable Diseases, 3rd ed., Chapter 1. [Online.] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga. http://www.cdc.gov/nip/publications/ surv-manual/chpt01_dip.pdf.
93. Olsen, C. C., J. R. Schwebke, W. H. Benjamin, Jr., A. Beverly, and K. B. Waites. 1999. Comparison of direct inoculation and Copan transport systems for isolation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae from endocervical speci- mens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 37:3583–3585.
94. Osterlund, A. 1995. Are penicillin treatment failures in Arcanobacterium haemolyticum pharyngotonsillitis caused by intracellularly residing bacteria? Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 27:131–134.
95. Page-Shafer, K., A. Graves, C. Kent, J. E. Balls, V. M. Zapitz, and J. D. Klausner. 2002. Increased sensitivity of DNA amplification testing for the detection of pha- ryngeal gonorrhea in men who have sex with men. Clin. Infect. Dis. 34:173–176.
96. Reznikov, M., T. K. Blackmore, J. J. Finlay-Jones, and D. L. Gordon. 1995. Comparison of nasopharyngeal aspirates and throat swab specimens in a polymerase chain reaction-based test for Mycoplasma pneumoni- ae. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 14:58–61. 97. Ribes, J. A., C. L. Vanover-Sams, and D. J. Baker. 2000.
Zygomycetes in human disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 13:236–301.
98. Richardson, M. D., P. Koukila-Kähkolä, and G. S. Shankland. 2003. Rhizopus, Rhizomucor, Absidia, and other agents of systemic subcutaneous zygomy- coses, p. 1761–1780. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Man- ual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
99. Rose, F. B., C. J. Camp, and E. J. Antes. 1987. Fami- ly outbreak of fatal Yersinia enterocolitica pharyngitis. Am. J. Med. 82:636–637.
100. Ruoff, K. L., R. A. Whiley, and D. Beighton. 2003. Streptococcus, p. 405–421. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H.
Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
101. Ruuskanen, O., M. Arola, T. Heikkinen, and T. Ziegler. 1991. Viruses in acute otitis media: increas- ing evidence for clinical significance. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 10:425–427.
102. Sande, M. A., and J. M. Gwaltney. 2004. Acute com- munity-acquired bacterial sinusitis: continuing chal- lenges and current management. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39(Suppl. 3):S151–S158.
103. Schalen, L., P. Christensen, C. Kamme, H. Miorner, K. I. Pettersson, and C. Schalen. 1980. High isolation rate of Branhamella catarrhalis from the nasophar- ynx in adults with acute laryngitis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 12:277–280.
104. Schubert, M. S., and D. W. Goetz. 1998. Evaluation and treatment of allergic fungal sinusitis. I. Demo- graphics and diagnosis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 102:387–394.
105. Sengor, A., A. Willke, O. Aydin, S. Gundes, and A. Almac. 2004. Isolated necrotizing epiglottitis: report of a case in a neutropenic patient and review of the literature. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 113:225– 228.
106. Sharp, S. E., A. Robinson, M. Saubolle, M. Santa Cruz, K. Carroll, and V. Baselski. 2004. Cumitech 7B, Lower Respiratory Tract Infections. Coordinat- ing ed., S. E. Sharp. ASM Press, Washington, D.C. 107. Shet, A., and E. L. Kaplan. 2002. Clinical use and
interpretation of group A streptococcal antibody tests: a practical approach for the pediatrician or pri- mary care physician. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 21:420– 426.
108. Summerbell, R. C. 2004. Mould identification, p. 8.9.1–8.9.59. In H. D. Isenberg (ed. in chief), Clin- ical Microbiology Procedures Handbook, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
109. Sun, Q. N., A. W. Fothergill, D. I. McCarthy, M. G. Rinaldi, and J. R. Graybill. 2002. In vitro activities of posaconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, ampho- tericin B, and fluconazole against 37 clinical isolates of zygomycetes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46: 1581–1582.
110. Talkington, D. F., S. Shott, M. T. Fallon, S. B. Schwartz, and W. L. Thacker. 2004. Analysis of eight commercial enzyme immunoassay tests for detection of antibodies to Mycoplasma pneumoniae in human serum. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 11:862–867. 111. Talkington, D. F., K. B. Waites, S. B. Schwartz, and
R. E. Besser. 2001. Emerging from obscurity: under- standing the pulmonary and extrapulmonary syn- dromes, pathogenesis, and epidemiology of human Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections, p. 57–84. In W. M. Scheld, W. A. Craig, and J. M. Hughes (ed.), Emerging Infections 5. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
112. Thomson, R. B., Jr., and J. M. Miller. 2003. Speci- men collection, transport, and processing: bacteriolo- gy, p. 286–330. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
113. Tondella, M. L., D. F. Talkington, B. P. Holloway, S. F. Dowell, K. Cowley, M. Soriano-Gabarro, M. S. Elkind, and B. S. Fields. 2002. Development and eval- uation of real-time PCR-based fluorescence assays for detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae. J. Clin. Micro- biol. 40:575–583.
114. Tong, C. Y., and M. Sillis. 1993. Detection of Chlamy- dia pneumoniae and Chlamydia psittaci in sputum samples by PCR. J. Clin. Pathol. 46:313–317. 115. Toyokawa, M., T. Kishimoto, Y. Cai, M. Ogawa, S.
Shiga, I. Nishi, H. Hosotsubo, M. Horikawa, and S. Asari. 2004. Severe Chlamydophila psittaci pneumo- nia rapidly diagnosed by detection of antigen in spu- tum with an immunochromatography assay. J. Infect. Chemother. 10:245–249.
116. Turner, J. C., A. Fox, K. Fox, C. Addy, C. Z. Garri- son, B. Herron, C. Brunson, and G. Betcher. 1993. Role of group C beta-hemolytic streptococci in phar- yngitis: epidemiologic study of clinical features asso- ciated with isolation of group C streptococci. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:808–811.
117. Vrabec, D. P. 1993. Fungal infections of the larynx. Otolaryngol. Clin. N. Am. 26:1091–1114.
118. Waites, K., and S. Brown. 2003. Antimicrobial resis- tance among isolates of respiratory tract infection pathogens from the southern United States: data from the PROTEKT US surveillance program 2000/ 2001. South. Med. J. 96:974–985.
119. Waites, K., L. B. Duffy, D. F. Talkington, and S. B. Schwartz. 2004. Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Myco- plasma hominis, and Ureaplasma cultures from clin- ical specimens, p. 3.15.1–3.15.17. In H. D. Isenberg (ed. in chief), Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C. 120. Waites, K. B., Y. Rikihisa, and D. Taylor-Robinson.
2003. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma, p. 972–990. In P. R. Murray, E. J. Baron, J. H. Jorgensen, M. A. Pfaller, and R. H. Yolken (ed.), Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C. 121. Waites, K. B., D. F. Talkington, and C. M. Bébéar. 2002. Mycoplasmas, p. 201–224. In A. L. Truant
(ed.), Manual of Commercial Methods in Clinical Microbiology. ASM Press, Washington, D.C. 122. Waites, K. B., C. M. Bébéar, J. A. Robertson, D. F.
Talkington, and G. E. Kenny. 2001. Cumitech 34, Laboratory Diagnosis of Mycoplasmal Infections. Coordinating ed., F. S. Nolte. ASM Press, Washing- ton, D.C.
123. Waites, K. B., and D. F. Talkington. 2004. Mycoplas- ma pneumoniae and its role as a human pathogen. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17:697–728.
124. Wald, E. R., W. C. Bordley, D. H. Darrow, K. T. Grimm, J. M. Gwaltney, S. M. Marcy, M. O. Senac, and P. V. Williams. 2001. American Academy of Pedi- atrics—clinical practice guidelines: management of sinusitis. Pediatrics 108:798–808.
125. Warren, D. K., R. S. Liao, L. R. Merz, M. Eveland, and W. M. Dunne, Jr. 2004. Detection of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus directly from nasal swab specimens by a real-time PCR assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42:5578–5581.
126. Whiley, R. A., L. M. Hall, J. M. Hardie, and D. Beighton. 1999. A study of small-colony, beta- haemolytic, Lancefield group C streptococci within the anginosus group: description of Streptococcus constellatus subsp. pharyngis subsp. nov., associated with the human throat and pharyngitis. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49:1443–1449.
127. Wilhelmus, K., T. J. Liesgang, M. S. Osato, and D. B. Jones. 1994. Cumitech 13A, Laboratory Diagnosis of Ocular Infections. Coordinating ed., S. C. Specter. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
128. York, M. K., and P. Gilligan. 2004. Nasal sinus cul- tures, p. 3.11.9.1–3.11.9.4. In H. D. Isenberg (ed. in chief), Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
129. York, M. K., and P. Gilligan. 2004. Otitis cultures, p. 3.11.5.1–3.11.5.6. In H. D. Isenberg (ed. in chief), Clinical Microbiology Procedures Handbook, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Washington, D.C.
130. Younus, F., A. Chua, G. Tortora, and V. E. Jimenez. 2002. Lemierre’s disease caused by co-infection of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum and Fusobacterium necrophorum: a case report. J. Infect. 45:114–117. 131. Zaoutis, T., M. Attia, R. Gross, and J. Klein. 2004.
The role of group C and group G streptococci in acute pharyngitis in children. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 10:37–40.