CHAPTER SEVEN
7.2.4 Cognitive Factors
Cognitive factors included the construction of knowledge through thought, experience and the senses. Subject background experiences, self-concept of ability, preferred learning styles and low female education levels were the four thematic topics which were found to impact on fourth form girls' participation and achievement in design and technology subjects in this section.
(i) Subject background experiences. Subject background experiences were
found to be both conative and cognitive. Conative in the sense that favourable and unfavourable previous experiences motivated girls to pursue or not pursue a subject. It was also found to be cognitive in that knowledge gained became cultural capital and building blocks upon which further knowledge was to be built on (Hill, 2001).
In terms of participation fourth form girls' interview responses in all the eight schools were in agreement that the subjects girls chose at school were a reflection of their familiarity with subject matter, accomplishments and experiences whether favourable or unfavourable. One girl perceived that it was better to take subjects that she was used to and which she could relate to than begin new ones completely. She pointed that, "With me, what will cause me to take a subject is my previous experience. If I did a subject say at form one level, by the time I come to form three, I would want to continue doing it rather than begin a new subject altogether" (Rudo:STPSH). A girl at another school commented that, "The thing is if you do not know something, you are unlikely to select it. You do something you already are familiar with, for example, fashion and fabrics" (Chara:STPSM).
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form choice of and achievement in D&T 1 76 Questionnaire responses traced through girls' schooling years from primary
school level showed that of the 35 girls who took agriculture at forms one and two levels at Mau and Mbizi rural schools, they continued taking the subjects at third and fourth form levels with only one girl dropping out. For Fashion and fabrics, all 47 girls who took the subject at form one and two levels went on to take the subjects to fourth form level. At Mari and Tembo urban low SES schools, of the 27 girls who took sewing at primary school level only two had dropped the subject by the time they reached ordinary level (year 1 1). Eleven girls who took food and nutrition at form one and two levels continued to take the subject to ordinary level with only one girl dropping out.
At Denlow and Gemston urban medium SES schools, ten girls who took typing at form one and two levels had interest in the same subject at third and fourth form level and continued taking the subject. Twenty-five girls took sewing at primary school and all took fashion and fabrics (as sewing is called at secondary school level) at form one and two level with the number growing to 26 by the time the girls reached fourth form. All ten girls who took food and nutrition at primary school took the subject at secondary school with the number growing to 23 as other girls also became interested in the subject. Technical graphics and design, art and music started with ten, nine and six participants at form one and two level but lost some to remain with five, seven and three participants respectively at fourth form. However, all these girls had taken the subjects at form one and two level.
At Telford and Riverdale four girls took agriculture at form one and two levels and three of them went on to take the same subject to fourth form. Fifteen girls took sewing at primary school level and went on to take the same subject to fourth form with the number growing to 23 at form one and two level and dropping to 17 by fourth form. Technical graphics and design and art which had seven and 20 girls initially at form one and two level ended up with three and eight girls respectively by fourth form.
Contrary to Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture policy, three girls did not take any technical subjects at form one and two level with the number growing to four (five percent) at fourth form level. At Mari and Tembo, twenty-four girls did not take any technical subjects at primary school level with the number growing to 25(42%) by the time they reached fourth form. It was also found that all 48 girls (38%) who were not taking any technical subject at fourth form level at Denlow and Gemston had not taken any technical subject at primary and lower secondary school level. The number of girls opting out of technical subjects at Telford and Riverdale rose from six at primary school to sixteen (33%) by fourth form.
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and achievement in D&T 177 All interview participant groups perceived that gender role socialisation was the foundation of subject choice decisions later in school. This was reflected in one girl' s comments o n how gender role socialisation affected subject choices:
These roles have a lot to do with our selection of subjects because . . . at home if my clothes are torn, my mother will say get a needle and sew them up. However, if my brother's clothes are torn, she does not ask him to sew them but will still instruct me to do it. So, I will be used to sewing such that even at school, I will not choose building which will be new to me but I will take fashion and fabrics. My brother will take those design and technology subjects because that is what he usually does at home helping our father to build houses and to do carpentry. (Thoko:SMbRSH).
One principal said:
Girls tend to select food and nutrition and fashion and fabrics reflecting their background experiences in domestic roles. Boys on the other hand, take metal technology, wood technology, building technology and technical graphics and design because they already possess much of the skills found there through their experiences in growing up (FPr:MRSM).
One girl compared the benefits of taking a familiar traditional girls' subject against an unfamiliar one:
Like fashion and fabrics and food and nutrition, we already know most of the skills because that is what we do at home. The subject becomes easier to relate to at school unlike metal technology. As for me, I do not know anything about the subject (Tsitsi:SMGBSM).
Two girls offered reasons why some students did not take design and technology subjects:
Technical graphics to us is something that is foreign. I think the reason why fashion and fabrics is easier for girls is because . . . we have always done it (Chara:STPSM).
Many girls run away from boys' subjects because they are not used to them (Thoko:SMbRSH).
In terms of achievement, twelve fourth form girls taking technical graphics and design in this study perceived that the issue of familiarity was critical for girls'
performance in a subject area. The girls felt that their performance in technical graphics and design was lower than that of boys because of their different background
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form choice of and achievement in D&T 178 experiences oriented them for design and technology subjects while girls' experiences were more into home economics" (Clara:SRPSM). One teacher perceived that boys' early engagement in technology related subject areas cultivated their skills and interest in design and technology subjects and gave them general foundational knowledge necessary for them to pursue and achieve in the area. He commented that, "If the father makes window frames, the boy may come to school already with welding skills. If the father is a carpenter, the son will bring those skills and knowledge to the school workshop"
(MBAT:TPSH). School design and technology subjects; in this case, was like an extension of what boys did helping fathers in home workshops. One parent perceived that, "if their backgrounds were the same, girls would perform just as well as boys in these subjects" (FP:RPSM). Because of a past that did not involve tinkering experiences one girl found some aspects of technical graphics and design difficult. She commented:
It is the engineering drawing that is too much into the mechanics of things, the bolts and nuts. Most of the things I started knowing them only when I came to ordinary level. For those people especially boys who have done metal technology before, they find it so much easier to do technical graphics because they already know how to draw these features and how the engine looks like. I am told this is an engine and it's just a couple of lines, curves, some straight and I just have to figure out what this all means (Clara:SRPSM).
This section has shown that taking familiar subjects for most of the girls in this study was both consistent with and enhanced their growing up experiences. As such, they found building on familiar learning material enhanced their learning and achievement.
(ii) Self concept of ability. Questionnaire results indicated that 43 or 1 3 .3 percent of the 321 fourth form girls said they evaluated their current skills and knowledge levels in respect of a particular subject, task or activity and weighed whether they would be able to achieve in it (see appendix xxxiii under domain specific subject efficacy). Where the demands of the activity were considered greater that the personal skills to achieve it, there was a tendency by the girls to refrain from participation. One girl commented that: "sometimes you look at what you personally are able to do. It may be in wood technology and design and you say, will I be able to do this subject?" (Tendai:SMbRSH). Another girl pointed out that, "I think it is my ability to do the
subject, whether I can pass it or not. It is best to choose a subject that I will be able to do" (Kuda:SMRSM). One principal also gave similar comments when she said that, "the question of achievement is important in our examination driven system. Girls are likely
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and achievement in D&T 1 79 to weigh their chances of success in a subject with their present knowledge to see if they are likely to pass (FPr:MbRSH).
One male principal perceived more girls preferring subjects like English language, Shona language and home economics than science, mathematics and
technology subjects. He perceived that stories doing the rounds among female students that science, mathematics and technology subjects are difficult were responsible for many girls' low preferences for science, mathematics and technology subjects. He commented that, "These subjects are considered by many girls as very difficult and suitable for men. I think it has historically been believed among girls that they are male subjects and girls tend to avoid them" (MPr:MGBSM).
Results showed that girls' self-concept of ability was related to an attitude that drew them behind in terms of achievement in design and technology subjects. A tendency was noticed where girls undervalued their capabilities and potential to the extent of believing that boys were born with better capabilities. Comments by one fourth form girl confirm the low self-concept of ability girls usually have of themselves. She commented that, "There is a belief in us girls that we cannot do men's work. We just feel that we are not able to match their skills. Sometimes we just say we cannot beat boys in their own subject areas" (Jane:SMbRSH).
Perceptions of the twelve girls taking design and technology subjects were found to be more positive than those not taking the subjects. One girl taking technical graphics and design commented that, "I have come to like the subject a lot and I have been doing well for the past four years. It is just like any other subject" (Chene:SGGASM) and, "Now I think technical graphics is an interesting subject though I found it challenging at first. I think my success at form one and two level has given me more confidence to achieve in the subject" (Chiedza:SGGASM). For girls who were not taking any design and technology subjects, there was a tendency to perceive the subjects in a negative way as difficult and heavy. As some girls in this group said, "They are hard subjects suitable for boys. I do not understand them (Tina:SMbRSH), "They are too hard and difficult for me. I just cannot do them (Ocean:MbRSH) and, "I don't think that I am good at technical graphics, it is difficult for me as a girl and may lower my overall pass rate
(Mclo:SDGASH).
One girl not taking design and technology subjects blamed society's low expectation of women for girls' lowered expectation of ability and felt that they
sometimes let boys achieve better in line with societal expectations. She commented that, "Society has always looked down upon women and we have tended to limit ourselves to the level of societal expectation. I think girls feel low esteemed and that way pull
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and achievement in D&T 1 80
one response from one male technical graphics teacher who said, "Girls haven't believed that they can succeed in these areas" (MTGT:MGBSM).
Results in this section show that fourth form girls' participation in a subject was usually a sign that the weighted positives outweighed negatives. Results also show that students who had positive self-ability beliefs in a subject tended to have positive expectations of success.
(iii) Preferred teaching and learning styles. This section fell under both
cognitive and school climatic factors. Two lesson observations carried out in mixed gender classrooms at Gemston urban medium SES and Riverdale private high SES schools revealed both the male and female teachers' preferences for teacher-centred modes of teaching involving group instruction, problem solving, recall skills and application of facts. Both teachers introduced their lessons on construction of triangles and the design process and kept tight control of all proceedings. There was more teacher talk and chalk and directing of questions and responses to and from pupils. However, while the female teacher allowed more flexibility in terms of student interaction, the male teacher preferred no noise in the class resulting in little interaction between students except through him.
Fourth form girls in both classroom situations preferred more interactive and collaborative and non-competitive ways of learning where free flow of ideas was encouraged in contrast to boys' preferences of individual and competitive ways. Observations on how the two groups approached their work showed these differences clearly. At Gemston (group A) school, I observed that the five girls in the technical graphics and design lesson sat and worked together in their own gender group near the female teacher' s table (see figure 7.2). They were observed to be in constant consultation with each other and with the female teacher. They seemed more relaxed in the presence of the female teacher and participated more freely in lesson proceedings.
The arrows in figure 7.2 show the consultative interaction processes taking place while students were working on constructing triangles over a period of 70 minutes. There was more consultation between the girls themselves and their female teacher as the girls were drawing. A good number of boys rarely consulted the teacher and each other and worked as if they were competing against each other. On the rare occasions boys consulted, it was to the nearest boy to them. Only one boy was found to consult others extensively while working. While three girls at the front were often seen consulting the teacher, only one boy did so for the entire 70 minutes.
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form choice of and achievement in D&T 1 8 1
Boy Boy Boy
Boy Boy
Boy� Boy Researcher Boy
Figure 7.2. Lesson interaction processes at Gemston group A school
Although these data report observations of a single lesson, they suggest that girls may work more collaboratively than boys. Though the consultative process slowed girls down, their work showed more detailed thinking and accuracy than that of boys who worked alone. When asked about why girls sat together as a group near the female teacher, one girl commented, "we just feel comfortable with other girls around. I
wouldn't have taken the subject if I were the only girl. I would feel shy to be the only girl among this group of boys" (J ane:SGGASM). I also observed that there was more
engagement with both teacher and peers at tables near the teacher than those further away. This may mean that students who sat near the teacher benefited more from learning than those who sat further away.
At Riverdale private school I observed that each racial group sat in their own area and rarely consulted each other as they worked on their drawings (see figure 7.3). The African group sat closer to the African teacher's table, three Europeans sat at the back right hand side of the classroom while the two coloured boys sat at the back left hand side which was the furthest point to the teacher's table. Several meanings may be drawn from this arrangement such as gender, friendship and race. Zimbabwean society tended to be far from being integrated as one people. Groups could also be interpreted in terms of friendships formed, which were being used for classroom consultations. The Africans felt secure sitting together and nearer the African teacher whom they consulted with freely in either Shona or English language. Three African boys were in constant
Chapter Seven: Reasons for 4th form girls' choice of and achievement in D&T 182 consultation with the teacher while the rest worked either alone or in consultation with the next boy.
Boy Boy
Boy (Coloured)
Boy (Coloured)
Male teacher's table (Black) Boy
t
Boy Boy Researcher (White) Girl Girl (White) (White) Boy Figure 7.3. Lesson interaction processes at Riverdale private schoolThe two white girls sat close to each other and formed their own consultation group with the European boy while the coloured boys did the same in their own group further away from the teacher's table. There was also more teacher consultation for the