Collaboration What do we mean?

Science laboratories in secondary schools are usually crowded and busy places, so potentially very social. Yet when it comes to observing the teaching methods in the classrooms, much of it can be focused on the individual student completing work and whole class instruction, particularly in secondary schools. It’s as though the social sphere of thinking and learning is somewhat overlooked, possibly due to the demands of time, assessment protocols or finishing point of work. Science teachers claim to make efforts to enhance collaborative practices when students are doing activities, instructing the students to be in groups or pairs. However, at a closer look, much of the group nature of the work remains individual. What can happen is that there are students usually working towards their individual goals, which other students in the group are replicating to reach the goal. Whereas students who are collaborating, their actions are attuned in order to achieve a shared goal (Watkins, Carnell, & Lodge, 2007). Further to this, students may partake in certain roles within the group, to attain a shared learning goal and generally there is a sense of shared responsibility for the learning. The term “group” used here has the meaning of a pair of students or more working together. We know that communication is a key element for co-operation and collaboration to happen (Brown & Thomson, 2000). Nevertheless, the terms co-operating and collaborating can easily be assumed to mean the same and can at times be loosely discussed, without giving much time to reveal their differences. Students who are actively co-operating, according to Kagan (1992, 1994) six key concepts need to exist, outlined below:

1. Teams of students working together in the classroom, student’s sharing resources and equipment such as textbooks and apparatus “Pass the Bunsen burner.” “I will get the tongs.”

2. Managing cooperation. Seating and space for learners working together. 3. Cooperation, involves continued maintenance and structure from the teacher.

Strategies such as team building exercises, rewards and acknowledgement to be used.

4. Cooperative skills modelled and reinforced through role-playing and specific practical tasks.

5. Basic principles: contribution by all, accountability of the individual, equal participation and continuous activity.

6. Structure of the lesson, how concepts are explored and developed rather than content delivered.

Brown and Thomson (2000), two New Zealand researchers, place an importance on teaching the skills of cooperation and establishing a learning environment that is cooperative. They suggest that cooperative learning does not just appear in the classroom and if self- directed responsible life-long learners are our goal, we must ensure we design these strategies into every day classroom activities (Brown & Thomson, 2000). Their studies examine both international and New Zealand ideas on students working together and they base much of their work on the Johnson and Johnson (1994) effective requirements as a basic framework for cooperative learning:

 Sharing a common purpose

 Working together for mutual advantage  Long term outlook

 Shared identity as a team player and as an individual  Having a mutual commitment and investment in learning

“Students are often placed in situations where they do not have the skills required for the complex task of working together” (Brown & Thomson, 2000, p. 21)

So these effective requirements were further developed by Brown and Thomson into five essential ideas as the following acronym PIGSF (Pigs Fly):

P Positive interdependence I Individual accountability G Group and individual reflection S Small group skills

F Face to face interaction

The idea of interdependence is significant for success and fulfilment of the whole group. Sometimes when students are asked to work together to complete a task, they may be unfamiliar in taking on roles to complete the work. Perhaps in the past, students have been urged to help each other however real success occurs from the group to meet the success criteria together, not individually (Brown & Thomson, 2000).

Student accountability is an issue that is repeatedly discussed in New Zealand secondary schools. At times teachers can forget to see how accountability is linked with care and respect. There are expectations and responsibilities for students to be active in making decisions in their learning and choice of subjects and extra-curricular activities. However, in order to do this, students need to feel safe at school and in the classroom. Not just in terms of physical safety, but holistically, in all levels of personal safety and well being. Student confidence in speaking up and having a say in what they learn and how they learn directly links with expectations from teachers. The Māori concept of Ako in the Ka Hikitia strategy (2008-2012) in New Zealand schools frames this idea of teaching- wellbeing in two aspects. The relationship between the teacher and the learner is of crucial significance to better learning; and the process of the valuing of the student, where they come from and the building on what they bring with them is critical for improvement (Ministry of Education, 2008).

Team reflection describes the purpose of evaluating how students work together and what can be done to improve strategies in working together. Setting new goals helps in moving forward and maintaining a focus to the learning.

Small group skills and face-to-face interaction are particularly important in developing complex thinking. Complex learning thoughts can emerge and be developed by simple tasks. Skills can be employed to aid this by working on projects such as e.g. cutting and gluing cardboard/paper to construct a model, skimming and scanning of internet information to solve a problem or answer a question, using a movie camera in a role-play situation, writing an interview with

worthwhile questions. Some of these skills maybe somewhat basic procedural steps but can develop into complex learning connections. Examples: selection and choice of models of construction of bridges or houses, selection of variables in fair testing, writing questions in a food-exercise survey.

Facing one another and being in a learning space with others are important and favourable conditions for more effective learning (Brown & Thomson, 2000).

Watkins, Carnell and Lodge (2007) highlight two main characteristics of their understanding of collaboration:

 While collaborating something new is generated that could not have been produced otherwise.

 Collaboration transpires when all the members of the group can contribute to a new shared product.

Dewey (1963) explores the essence of the term collaboration further with regard to learning. He maintains that learning and problem solving are not activities that take place in the minds of isolated, autonomous individuals, in contrast they depend on the interaction with others. He saw the activity of problem solving expanding the mind, not the acquiring and storing of existing knowledge. His belief was that it was the growth of the ideas and new concepts through a process of enquiry, usually in dealings with others.

Glasser (1969, 1986) approaches the challenges and failures in classrooms and schools with the solution of learning teams. He was critical of many educational institutions and looked to co-operation and collaboration strategies as a remedy. He based his philosophy on several basic reasons that would motivate students, if they were placed in teams.

 Students would gain a sense of belonging with teacher selection of the group.

 Belonging was the underlying principle of motivation for students to work together.

 A sense of satisfaction would be created from stronger students helping weaker students due to increased friendship coupled with success. Weaker students were satisfied since every little effort increases the opportunity of success.

 Less dependence on teacher, students have more control with their learning.  Teachers encourage teams to put forward learning evidence rather than test

performance to see if ideas have been learned.

 A team provides a framework for the students to operate in.

So in summary, we can see that when collaboration takes place, from the studies discussed, it can help learners take the opportunity to explain their meaning- making to each other. Their learning can become richer and deeper because of their interaction. The act of having to make sense to a peer challenges the learner to illuminate and commune in such a way that their own learning is enhanced (Watkins, Carnell & Lodge, 2007). Hence, the process of an exchange of ideas and the chance of expressing opinion can create the opportunity of acknowledging other learners’ views. It is interesting to note, some researchers focus on the significance of collaboration creating something new, for example a shared new product, and others celebrate the process of collaboration being the important factor of new learning. This idea leads us into the next section on learning constructively in the science classroom and how does that link with collaborative learning.