Collective learning and problem solving are key concepts shaping learning and learning interaction

2.4.5 Collective learning and problem solving are key concepts shaping learning and learning interaction in extension work

Highlighting the importance of collective learning and problem solving and interaction in extension work, a publication by FAO (1993) noted that the curriculum which is developed and reviewed with the participation of various groups and stakeholders from outside the organisation has the potential to improve relevance. This reflects the notion that where curriculum processes are open and participatory, they are seen to be more likely to lead to changes, and new local and global issues may be included.

Emphasising collective decision making, Jentoft (1997) argued that co-management is inclusive of rights to participate in making key decisions about how to fish, when to fish, where to fish, how much fish will be harvested and who has the right to fish. To this end, social learning processes integrate negotiation, reflexivity, participation and system thinking as strategies to incorporate ecological complexity and the diverse knowledge and experiences of multi-stakeholders in addressing management issues (Dyball, Brown, & Keen, 2007). As indicated in the previous chapter, the centralised management of fisheries by the state alone was identified as one of the major contributing factors to the problems of fisheries management (Pomeroy, 1994; Baland & Platteau, 1996).

Giller et al. (2008) discussed this form of collective decision making using a concept of networks or networked learning suggesting that change in a multi-stakeholder context arises from multiple interactions in and between stakeholders who all play a role in providing solutions to the problems being faced. They suggested further that as change occurs simultaneously in multiple societal networks, it is clear that deliberate efforts to stimulate change cannot usefully focus on a single network or societal level only.

Focussing more on the actual processes of interaction in such collaborative situations or networks, Wildermeerch (2007) noted that learning is related to processes of negotiation which result from differences of interest represented inside and outside the social system involved. He stated further that the management of these differences can be consensus- oriented or dissent-oriented, or a combination of both. Negotiation processes can be put into two categories: negotiations that are destructive in nature where stakeholders tend to hold onto their own perceptions and positions, and / or integrative where stakeholders develop new and at least partially shared problem definitions and cognitions on the basis of a social

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learning process resulting in the identification of win-win solutions among stakeholders (ibid.).

It is also said that an integrative negotiation process facilitates new learning and development of new solutions (ibid.). The process allows those involved to be engaged in the learning process; they learn through deliberation and interaction, which is often based on experience or experimentation (Lotz-Sisitka, 2013) and the outcome of their learning practices, occurs collectively. As shown in my previous research, resource users bring their tacit knowledge gained from years of fishing, and knowledge that may not be found documented in the government extension system or in associated training curricula (Kachilonda, 2005).

Emphasising the complexity of such interactions, the social learning literature indicates that social learning involves reflexive participation in certain practices using relationships, knowledge, culture, language cognitive skills, values, knowledge and prior experiences (Lotz-Sisitka, 2013) that may lead to change in practices. Social learning takes place in groups or societal systems that operate in new, unexpected, uncertain and unpredictable circumstances (Wildermeerch, 2007). As a process, social learning is meant to enable actors to come together to question norms, policies and management objectives through the creation of deliberative platforms that support an interactive dialogue with a wide set of stakeholders (Collins & Ison, 2009). Taking the above argument further, Engeström (1999) confirmed that in an activity system people have to decide where they want to go, which way is up. It is important that the decision process comes from all the players involved in the management process and that any decision made takes into consideration the socio-cultural factors of the stakeholders. Lave and Wenger (1991) commented on the importance of networks for learning when they noted that learning happens through the interactions and relationships amongst people who share a common object or concern over time. Similarly Field (2003) noted that people make connections with people they share an interest with.

On-going reflection and reflexivity is also a key part of social learning processes because every time we reflect on the value of what we know as individuals and how we know it, this leads us to a new understanding which is a very important component of successful social learning. Reflexivity is reflecting on the learning that has taken place during a given process and using that reflection to stimulate more learning and action (Dyball, et al., 2007). Hersoug, et al. (2004) argued that communities can do more if they are equipped to interact with each other in a coordinated management effort around those issues that cut across community boundaries, and if they are supported to engage in regular reflections and review of practices (reflexivity). In this regard, however, Bull, Petts, & Evans, noted in Lotz- Sisitka, 2008, pp. 47noted:

Social learning is not an automatic outcome of a participatory process … if one is going to assert that the process can affect people as environmental citizens, then what

happens to people, not just outside of, but also after the process, is critical. The question is whether or not through a process of public participation, people can learn to see beyond their own agenda and pursue a collective one of responsible citizenship. (Bull, Petts, & Evans, 2008:703).

Reflecting on the methods and practices people use and developing in-depth understanding on why those practices are being used is crucial in resources management. Schusler, Decker and Pfeffer (2003) argued that learning can be ‘mistaken’ or misdirected if there is inadequate reflection and reflexivity. Such ‘mistaken’ learning could impede collaborative relationships. Wals et al. (2009) noted in this regard that social learning is more likely to succeed if the participants can view their own interests in relation to other interests. From this it is possible to see that people’s relationships and the acquiring of different knowledge due to interactions may enable them to critically relook at their own practices. Through realising the effects or impact of the practices, such a process may allow them to reflect on their practices and then go through the process of unlearning unsustainable practices and change to more sustainable practices. How this can be done and facilitated through extension training is the subject of this thesis.

The literature reviewed above shows that collective learning and problem solving are seen to be an important aspect of learning in extension and training work. There is a sophisticated understanding of the importance of engaging different stakeholders in such processes, which has implications for curricula related to extension training for natural resources management. However there are still tensions in understanding learning as a process of negotiation where interactive negotiation facilitates learning through people’s interactions and learning from their contradictions or differences through a deliberative process. The importance of reflection and reflexivity is also highlighted in such learning processes.

2.4.6 The knowledge that is dealt with is systems based, and involves social-ecological