Strategies to manage dyspnea by elders with end-stage chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were identified in a study by Thomas (2009). Quantitative and qualitative data were gathered. The Treatment for Breathing Problems (TBP) questionnaire generated quantitative data; a written open-ended question provided qualitative data. When the two sets of data were compared, 10 of the 11 topmost strategies identified on the TBP agreed with one of the four themes identified through the qualitative data.
SUMMARY
Interest in qualitative research continues in the nursing profession. However, there is some con- cern that the focus on evidence-based practice may decrease the interest in qualitative research.
Quantitative research is based on the con- cepts of manipulation and control, whereas qual- itative research focuses on gaining insight and understanding. In qualitative research, the indi- vidual’s interpretation of events or circum- stances is of utmost importance.
The many types of qualitative research in- clude: ethnography, grounded theory, phenome- nology, historical research, case studies, and action research.
Steps in qualitative research include (a) iden- tify the problem of the study, (b) state the pur- pose, (c) select the research design, (d) review the literature, (e) select the sample, (f) gain entry to the research site, (g) protect the rights of partici- pants, (h) collect the data, (i) analyze the data, (j) interpret the data, (k) communicate the study results, and (l) utilize the study results.
The most commonly used method of data collection in qualitative research is the interview.
Participant observationis another widely used
method of data collection. Focus groups consist of small groups of individuals meeting together and being asked questions, by a moderator, about a certain topic or topics.
Saturation occurs when the researcher is hearing a repetition of themes or salient points as additional participants are interviewed; data col- lection ceases at that time. Sample sizes may be quite small in qualitative research.
The reliability and validity of qualitative studies are determined differently than in quan- titative studies. Qualitative studies are consid- ered valid if the findings “reflect reality” from the point of view of the subject. Both the large amount of data collected and the length of time spent collecting data help increase the reliability and validity of qualitative data.
Qualitative studies produce large amounts of data. The data generally consist of words rather than numbers. Data analysis usually occurs throughout the course of the study, rather than at its completion. Data can be analyzed manually or through the aid of computer software programs.
Content analysisinvolves creating categories of data and developing rules for coding data into these categories.
Many nurse researchers have recommended the use of both qualitative and quantitative re- search methods in a study. Mixed methods
researchindicates that quantitative and qualita- tive research methods have been used in the
same study. Triangulation involves the use of two or more different sampling strategies, data collectors, data collection procedures, or theories in one study.
NURSING RESEARCH
ON THE WEB
For additional online resources, research activi- ties, and exercises, go to www.mynursingkit.
com. Select Chapter 4 from the drop-down menu.
GET INVOLVED ACTIVITIES
1. Divide into pairs. Choose a topic for which you think only a qualitative design would be appropriate to study the phenomenon. Share these topics with the entire group.
2. Stay in the same pairs. Choose a topic for which you think either a qualitative or quantitative design would be appropriate to study a particular phenomenon. Share these topics with the entire group.
3. Remain with your partner from Activity 2. Write a problem statement or purpose state-
ment for either the qualitative study or quantitative study proposed in Activity 2.
4. As a group, identify potential funding sources for a qualitative research study. What approach or techniques would you use to convince the funding source of the value of your proposed study?
5. Debate, with the entire group, what you be- lieve to be the future direction of nursing research. Will quantitative or qualitative research become the dominant research method?
SELF-TEST
Write T (True) or F (False) beside the following statements:
____ 1. Qualitative research has been the type of research chosen by most nurse re- searchers in the past.
____ 2. The researcher exerts tight controls over the research situation in qualita- tive research.
____ 3. There has been an increase in the num- ber of qualitative studies conducted in the past few years.
____ 4. Many nurses are calling for a combina- tion of both qualitative and quantita- tive methods in research.
____ 5. Qualitative researchers are very con- cerned with the generalizability of their study findings.
____ 6. The number of subjects is generally larger in qualitative research than in quantitative research.
____ 7. Qualitative research is less common today than it was 20 years ago.
Circle the letter before the best answer.
8. Which of the following statements is true when comparing qualitative research to quantitative research?
A. Qualitative research is easier to conduct than quantitative research.
B. The amount of data to be analyzed is usu- ally greater in qualitative studies than in quantitative studies.
C. The amount of time needed to conduct a qualitative study is usually less than in a quantitative study.
D. Qualitative research most frequently uses a deductive approach, whereas
quantitative research uses an inductive approach.
9. If a researcher were planning a qualitative study, which of the following data-collection methods do you think would most likely be considered?
A. closed-ended questions and nonpartici- pant observations.
B. participant observations and semistruc- tured interviews.
C. structured interviews and physiological measures.
D. closed-ended questions and structured in- terviews.
E. all of these data collections methods would probably be considered.
10. When both qualitative and quantitative re- search methods are used simultaneously in the same study, this procedure is called A. mixed methods.
B. meta-analysis.
C. multitrait/multimethod. D. methodological plurality.
REFERENCES
Ågren, S., Frisman, G. H., Berg, S., Svedjeholm, R., & Strömberg, A. (2009). Addressing spouses’ unique needs after cardiac surgery when recovery is complicated by heart failure. Heart & Lung: Journal of Acute & Critical Care, 38, 284–291. doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2008.10.002
Brethauer, M., & Carey, L. (2010). Maternal experience with neonatal jaundice. Maternal Child Nursing, 35, 8–14. Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2009). The practice of nursing re-
search: Appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence (6th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier. Chamberlain, B. (2009). Phenomenology: A qualitative
method. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 23, 52–53.
Connelly, L. M., & Yoder, L. H. (2000). Improving qualitative proposals: Common problem areas. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 14, 69–74.
Côté-Arsenault, D., & Morrison-Beedy, D. (2005). Focus on research methods. Maintaining your focus in focus groups: Avoiding common mistakes. Research in Nursing & Health, 28, 172–179.
DeSantis, L., & Ugarriza, D. N. (2000). The concept of theme as used in qualitative nursing research. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 22, 351–372.
Donalek, J. G. (2005). The interview in qualitative research. Urologic Nursing, 25, 124–125.
Field, P. A., & Morse, J. M. (1985). Nursing research: The appli- cation of qualitative approaches. Rockville, MD: Aspen. Finfgeld-Connett, D. (2010). Generalizability and transfer-
ability of meta-synthesis research findings. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 66, 246–254. doi:10.1111/j.1365- 2648.2009.05250.x
Ford-Gilboe, M., Campbell, J., & Berman, H. (1995). Stories and numbers: Coexistence without compromise. Advances in Nursing Science, 18, 14–26.
Furness, P. J., & Garrud, P. (2010). Adaptation after facial sur- gery: Using the diary as a research tool. Qualitative Health Research, 20, 262–272. doi: 10.1177/1049732309357571 Haase, J. E., & Myers, S. T. (1988). Reconciling paradigm as-
sumptions of qualitative and quantitative research. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 10, 128–136.
Harrowing, J. N. (2009). The impact of HIV education on the lives of Ugandan nurses and nurse-midwives. Advances in Nursing Science, 32. E94–E108
Hinds, P. S. (1989). Method triangulation to index change in clinical phenomena. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 11, 440–447.
Hinds, P. S., Scandrett-Hibden, S., & McAulay, L. S. (1990). Further assessment of a method to estimate reliability and validity of qualitative research findings. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 15, 430–435.
Jacelon, C. S. (2010). Maintaining the balance: Older adults with chronic health problems manage life in the commu- nity. Rehabilitation Nursing, 35, 16–22; 40.
Jacelon, C. S., & O’Dell, K. K. (2005). Case and grounded theory as qualitative research methods. Urologic Nursing, 25, 49–52. Lambert, S. D., Loiselle, C. G., & Macdonald, M. E. (2009).
An in-depth exploration of information-seeking behavior among individuals with cancer. Cancer Nursing, 32, 11–23. Leininger, M. M. (Ed.). (1985). Qualitative research methods in
nursing. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.
McLaughlin, F. E., & Marascuilo, L. A. (1990). Advanced nurs- ing and health care research: Quantification approaches. Philadelphia: Saunders.
Morse, J. M. (2005a). Evolving trends in qualitative research: Advanced in mixed-method design [Editorial]. Qualitative Health Research, 15, 583–585.
Morse, J. M. (2005b). Fostering qualitative research [edito- rial]. Qualitative Health Research, 15, 287–288.
Myers, S. T., & Haase, J. E. (1989). Guidelines for integration of quantitative and qualitative approaches. Nursing Research, 38, 299–301.
Olson, B. H., Horodynski, M. A., Brophy-Herb, H., & Iwanski, K. C. (2010). Health professionals’ perspectives on the infant feeding practices of low income mothers. Maternal Child Health Journal, 14, 75–85. doi: 10.1007s10995-008-0425-2 Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2008 ). Nursing research: Principles
and methods (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Porter, E. J. (1989). The qualitative-quantitative dualism. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 21, 98–102. Redmond, R. A., & Curtis, E. A. (2009). Focus groups:
Principles and process. Nurse Researcher, 16(3), 57–69. Sandelowski, M. (1995a). On the aesthetics of qualitative re-
search. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27, 205–209. Sandelowski, M. (1995b). Sample size in qualitative research.
Sandelowski, M. (2000). Combining qualitative and quantita- tive sampling, data collection, and analysis techniques in mixed-method studies. Research in Nursing & Health, 23, 246–255.
Sandelowski, M. (2004). Using qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 14, 1366–1386.
Schachman, K. A. (2010). Online fathering. Nursing Research, 59, 11–17. doi: 10.1097/nnr.0b013e3181c3ba05
Streubert, H. J., & Carpenter, D. R. (2002). Qualitative research in nursing: Advancing the humanistic imperative (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Thomas, B. S. (1990). Nursing research: An experiential ap- proach. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Thomas, L. A. (2009). Effective dyspnea management strate- gies identified by elders with end-stage chronic obstruc- tive pulmonary disease. Applied Nursing Research, 22, 79–85. doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2007.04010
Woodgate, R. L., & Yanofsky, R. A. (2010). Parents’ experi- ences in decision making with childhood cancer clinical trials. Cancer Nursing, 33, 11–18.
Zinsmeister, L. B., & Schafer, D. (2009). The exploration of the lived experience of the graduate nurse making the transition to registered nurse during the first year of prac- tice. Journal for Nurses in Staff Development, 25, 28–34.