Decision-Making and Concentration?
4. Study 2 - Field 1. Method
5.5. Comparability of leisure environments
Using an explorative approach, we had a closer look at the open questions in study 2 (field study) to gain insight into the leisure environments that participants chose. Results revealed that, except one person, all other participants chose their home as a leisure environment.
Therefore, the comparison between leisure environments in study 1 and study 2 is limited.
However, this allows us to compare office environments with two different types of leisure environments: outdoor environments and familiar home surroundings. For study 1 (virtual garden scenery as a leisure environment), it could be argued that the results might be explained by natural restoration effects. Research has shown that natural environments can enhance cognitive performance as nature views have the potential to restore attention (e.g., Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan, 2008; R. Kaplan, 1993; S. Kaplan, 1995; Korpela, Bloom, &
Kinnunen, 2014; Largo-Wight, Chen, Dodd, & Weiler, 2011; Richardson et al., 2016).
However, we found similar effects in study 2, wherein participants predominantly chose an indoor home surrounding as their leisure environment. Therefore, the larger role of natural restorative effects seems unlikely.
Besides the difference in natural elements of the leisure environments in study 1 and study 2, there is also a difference in familiarity. Participants in study 2 mainly chose habitual, familiar surroundings as leisure environments which might have caused different effects compared to new, unusual surroundings. Familiar surroundings might lose their distracting properties after some time and participants might have learned to complete highly
concentrated tasks at home, for example reading a book (either for work or for leisure), learning for an exam, or doing mathematical calculations for the annual tax declaration.
Environmental effects on cognitive performance might have dampened due to habituation.
Future research should further refine the selection of leisure environments and control for familiarity to compare performance differences between environments. For example, for future field studies participants might be impelled to choose a leisure environment outside of their homes where they have not conducted work-similar effortful tasks before (e.g., an unfamiliar park or an unfamiliar tea room, respectively).
Across two related studies, we found results suggesting a superiority of office environments (compared to leisure environments) when performing tasks that require high
for tasks that require high creativity. In addition, research should investigate the assumption of whether individuals are able to habituate to different environments and to activate
appropriate work-related schemas independently from physical surroundings.
6. Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from the Senate Competition Committee (SAW) of the Leibniz Association. The project is part of the SAW-Program ‘Ubiquitous Working:
Challenges and Prospects of the Interconnected Working Environment’.
7. References
Abelson, R. P. (1976). Script processing in attitude formation and decision making. In J. S.
Carroll & J. W. Payne (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior (pp. 33–47). Oxford, England: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Abelson, R. P. (1981). Psychological status of the script concept. American Psychologist, 36(7), 715–729. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.36.7.715 Anderson, J. Q., & Rainie, L. (2008). The Future of the Internet III. Retrieved from
http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Future_of_Internet.pdf.%0A2 Anderson, J., & Rainie, L. (2014a). Digital Life in 2025. Retrieved from
http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/03/11/digital-life-in-2025/
Anderson, J., & Rainie, L. (2014b). The Internet of Things Will Thrive by 2025. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2
Aries, M. B. C., Veitch, J. A., & Newsham, G. R. (2010). Windows, view, and office
characteristics predict physical and psychological discomfort. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(4), 533–541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.12.004
Bailey, D. E., & Kurland, N. B. (2002). A Review of Telework Research: Findings, New Directions, and Lessons for the study of Modern Work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(4), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.144
Barsalou, L. (2003). Situated simulation in the human conceptual system. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18(5/6), 513–562. https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960344000026 Barsalou, L. W. (1982). Context-independent and context-dependent information in concepts.
Barsalou, L. W. (1999). Perceptual symbol systems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 577–
660. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X99252144
Barsalou, L. W. (2002). Being there conceptually: simulating categories in preparation for situated action. In N.L.Stein, P. J. Bauer, & M. Rabinowitz (Eds.), Representation, memory, and development: Essays in honor of Jean Mandler (pp. 1–15). Mahwa, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Barsalou, L. W. (2005). Situated Conceptualization. In H. Cohen & C. Lefebvre (Eds.), Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science (pp. 619–650). Amsterdam, NL:
Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044612-7/50083-4
Barsalou, L. W. (2010). Grounded Cognition: Past, Present, and Future. Topics in Cognitive Science, 2, 716–724. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01115.x
Barsalou, L. W. (2016). Understanding contemplative practices from the perspective of dual-process theories. In J. Karremans & E. Papies (Eds.) Mindfulness in Social Psychology.
Series: current issues in social psychology. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., & Kaplan, S. (2008). The Cognitive Benefits of Interacting With Nature. Psychological Science, 19(12), 1207–1212.
Carrier, J., & Monk, T. H. (2000). Circadian rhythms of performance: new trends.
Chronobiology International, 17(6), 719–732. https://doi.org/10.1081/CBI-100102108 Chellappa, S. L., Steiner, R., Blattner, P., Oelhafen, P., Götz, T., & Cajochen, C. (2011).
Non-visual effects of light on melatonin, alertness and cognitive performance: Can blue-enriched light keep us alert? PLoS ONE, 6(1).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016429
Chen, L., & Nath, R. (2005). Nomadic Culture: Cultural Support for Working Anytime, Anywhere. Information Systems Management, 22(4), 56–64.
https://doi.org/10.1201/1078.10580530/45520.22.4.20050901/90030.6
Cohen, C. E., & Ebbesen, E. B. (1979). Observational goals and schema activation: A theoretical framework for behavior perception. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 15(4), 305–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(79)90041-6
Demerouti, E., Derks, D., ten Brummelhuis, L. L., & Bakker, A. B. (2014). New ways of working: Impact on working conditions, work-family Balance, and well-being. In Korunka, C. & Hoonakker P. (Eds.), The impact of ICT on quality of working life (pp.
123 - 141). Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8854-0_8 Drucker, P. F. (1999). Knowledge-Worker Productivity: The Biggest Challenge. California
Management Review, 41(2), 79–94. Retrieved from
http://www.forschungsnetzwerk.at/downloadpub/knowledge_workers_the_biggest_chall enge.pdf
Dul, J., & Ceylan, C. (2011). Work environments for employee creativity. Ergonomics, 54(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2010.542833
Dul, J., Ceylan, C., & Jaspers, F. (2011). Knowledge worker creativity and the role of the physical work environment . Human Resource Management, 50(6), 715–734.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm
Elliot, A. J., Maier, M. A., Moller, A. C., Friedman, R., & Meinhardt, J. (2007). Color and psychological functioning: The effect of red on performance attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136(1), 154–168. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.154
Fiske, S. T. (2000). Schema. In A. E. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 7, pp.
158–160). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10522-064
Fiske, S. T., & Linville, P. W. (1980). What Does the Schema Concept Buy Us? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6(4), 543–557.
Gasper, K. (2003). When necessity is the mother of invention: Mood and problem solving.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(3), 248–262.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00023-4
Halford, S. (2005). Hybrid workspace: re-spatialisations of work, organisation and management. New Technology, Work and Employment, 20(1), 19–33.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-005X.2005.00141.x
aspects of work and personal / family life. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63(2), 20–
241. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(03)00042-3
Hill, E. J., Miller, B. C., Weiner, S. P., & Colihan, J. (1998). Influences of the virtual office on aspects of work and work/life balance. Personnel Psychology, 51, 667-683.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1998.tb00256.x
Hislop, D., & Axtell, C. (2007). The neglect of spatial mobility in contemporary studies of work: The case of telework. New Technology, Work and Employment, 22(1), 34–51.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-005X.2007.00182.x
Hossiep, R., & Paschen, M. (2003). Das Bochumer Inventar zur berufsbezogenen Persönlichkeitsbeschreibung: BIP. Göttingen: Hogrefe Verlag für Psychologie.
Hygge, S., & Knez, I. (2001). Effects of Noise, Heat and Indoor Lighting on Cognitive Performance and Self-Reported Affect. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(3), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2001.0222
Isen, A. M. (1999). On the relationship between affect and creative problem solving. In S. W.
Russ (Ed.), Affect, creative experience, and psychological adjustment (pp. 3–17). New York, NY: Routledge.
Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A., & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122–1131.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122
Kaplan, R. (1993). The role of nature in the context of the workplace. Landscape and Urban Planning, 26, 193–201.
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework.
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182.
Korpela, K., Bloom, J. De, & Kinnunen, U. (2014). From restorative environments to restoration in work. Intelligent Buildings International, 7(4).
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17508975.2014.959461
Kurland, N. B. & Bailey, D. E. (1999). Telework: The advantages and challenges of working here, there, anywhere, and anytime. Organizational Dynamics, 28, 53-68.
Largo-Wight, E., Chen, W. W., Dodd, V., & Weiler, R. (2011). Healthy Workplaces : The Effects of Nature Contact at Work on Employee Stress and Health. Public Health Reports, 126, 124–130.
Lehrl, S., Gerstmeyer, K., Jacob, J. H., Frieling, H., Henkel, A. W., Meyrer, R., … Bleich, S.
(2007). Blue light improves cognitive performance. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114(4), 457–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-006-0621-4
McCoy, J. M. & Evans, G. W. (2002). The potential role of the physical environment in fostering creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 14(3–4), 409–426.
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1434
Mehta, R. P., & Zhu, R. J. (2009). Blue Or Red? Exploring the Effect of Color on Cognitive Performance. Advances in Consumer Research, 36, 1045–1046. Retrieved from
http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/14185/volumes/v36/NA-36
Messenger, J., & Gschwind, L. (2015). Three Generations of Telework. New ICTs and the (R)evolution from Home Office to Virtual Office. In 17th ILERA World Congress.
Retrieved from http://www.ilera2015.com/dynamic/full/IL156.pdf
Moskaliuk, J., Burmeister, C. P., Landkammer, F., Renner, B., & Cress, U. (2017).
Environmental effects on cognition and decision making of knowledge workers. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 49, 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.12.001 Niedenthal, P., Barsalou, L., Winkielman, P., Krauth-Gruber, S., & Ric, F. (2005).
Embodiment in Attitudes, Social Perception, and Emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(3), 184–211. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_1 Olivers, C. N. L., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2006). The beneficial effects of additional task load,
positive affect, and instruction on the attentional blink. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32(2), 364–379.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.32.2.364
Prinz, J. J., & Barsalou, L. W. (2000). Steering a course for embodied representation. In E.
Dietrich & A. Markman (Eds.), Cognitive dynamics Conceptual change in humans and machines (pp. 51–77). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ramirez, Y. W., & Nembhard, D. A. (2004). Measuring knowledge worker productivity: A
Renner, B. (2014). Ubiquitous Working - ein Gewinn an Flexibilität oder vor allem ein Mehr an Arbeit? Wissens.blitz, 141, 1689–1699.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004
Richardson, M., Maspero, M., Golightly, D., Sheffield, D., Staples, V., & Lumber, R. (2016).
Nature : a new paradigm for well-being and ergonomics. Ergonomics, 60(2), 292–305.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2016.1157213
Satow, L. (2011). Psychomeda-Konzentrationstest. Retrieved from
http://www.psychomeda.de/online-tests/Psychomeda-Konzentrationstest.pdf
Schmidt, C., Collette, F., Cajochen, C., & Peigneux, P. (2007). A time to think: Circadian rhythms in human cognition. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 24(7), 755–789.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290701754158
Slepian, M. L., Weisbuch, M., Rutchick, A. M., Newman, L. S., & Ambady, N. (2010).
Shedding light on insight: Priming bright ideas. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(4), 696–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.03.009
Smith, S. M., & Vela, E. (2001). Environmental context-dependent memory: A review and meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(2), 203–220.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196157
Statistisches Bundesamt. (2016). 61 % der Unternehmen in Deutschland ermöglichen mobiles Arbeiten. Retrieved from
https://www.destatis.de/DE/PresseService/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2016/12/PD16_443 _52911pdf.pdf;jsessionid=BA1053863FC0810DDAF4156218D68A37.InternetLive2?__
blob=publicationFile
Steidle, A., & Werth, L. (2013). Freedom from constraints: Darkness and dim illumination promote creativity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 35, 67–80.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.05.003
Steidle, A., Werth, L., & Hanke, E.-V. (2011). You Can’t See Much in the Dark. Social Psychology, 42(3), 174–184. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000061
Stone, N. J. (2001). Designing Effective Study Environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(2), 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.2000.0193
Stone, N. J., & Irvine, J. M. (1994). Direct or indirect window access, task type, and performance. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 14(1), 57–63.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-4944(05)80198-7
Su, N. M., & Mark, G. (2008). Designing for nomadic work. In Proceedings of the 7th ACM conference on Designing interactive systems (pp. 305–314). Retrieved from
http://delivery.acm.org/10.1145/1400000/1394478/p305-makoto.pdf?ip=134.2.234.65&id=1394478&acc=ACTIVE
SERVICE&key=2BA2C432AB83DA15.B3811E7C5C369224.4D4702B0C3E38B35.4D 4702B0C3E38B35&CFID=725159105&CFTOKEN=50538255&__acm__=1446025778 _c8e12b5d21bf230a
Tennessen, C. M., & Cimprich, B. (1995). Views To Nature : Effects on Attention. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 77–85.
Van Dongen, H. P. A., & Dinges, D. F. (2000). Circadian Rhythms in Fatigue, Alertness and Performance. In M. H. Kryger, T.Roth, & W. C. Dement (Eds.), Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine (3rd ed., pp. 391–399). Philadelphia,PA: W.B.Saunders.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.1065
Vartiainen, M., & Hyrkkänen, U. (2010). Changing requirements and mental workload factors in mobile multi-locational work. New Technology, Work and Employment, 25(2), 117–
135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-005X.2010.00243.x
Vischer, J. C. (2008). Towards an Environmental Psychology of Workspace : How People are affected by Environments for Work. Architectual Science Review, 51, 97–108.
Wirtz, M. A. (2013). Dorsch- Lexikon der Psychologie. (M. A. Wirtz, Ed.) (17. überar). Bern:
Verlag Hans Huber.
Witmer, B. G., & Singer, M. J. (1998). Measuring Presence in Virtual Environments: A Presence Questionnaire. Presence, 7(3), 225–240.
https://doi.org/10.1162/105474698565686
Witmer, B. J., Jerome, C. J., & Singer, M. J. (2005). The factor structure of the Presence Questionnaire. Presence, 14(3), 298–312.