Towards complementing the conceptualisation of sustainability in mobility and transport

-Aforesaid aspects and

-Analysis in the light of their social and economic characteristics, their behaviour and level of education

Sources: Vasconcellos, 2001:39

A sociological approach would therefore make ways for the analysis of distribution, process and associated politics in mobility studies in this research. Further, in congruence to the evolution discussed, this research would seek to apply a just mobilities framework, developed in this chapter.

4.2.2 Towards complementing the conceptualisation of sustainability in mobility and transport

Usually discussion on sustainability sheds light on justice (social justice) along with environmental sustainability and economic efficiency. But equal focus on all the three aspects is an overdue. Fujita (2009:378-9) even dissents that "renewed the definition of sustainability", after the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development, and the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, sustainability "did not address justice and equality adequately". Therefore, Agyeman et al. (2003a, 2003b) have attempted to establish the concept of just sustainability by bringing equity into environmental justice and sustainability. Agyeman et al. (2003a) conclude that just sustainability implies that more sustainable societies will only emerge when those societies begin to demonstrate greater levels of material, social, and political equality.

In such a context, there is scope to appreciate justice more in the studies dealing with sustainability in mobility or transport. In the following discussion the shortcomings in conceptualising sustainable transport and sustainable mobility paradigms are identified.

107 A. Complete aspects of justice remain unaddressed

There is a large volume of literature on sustainable transport and land use (EFTE 1994; Banister 1997, 2000, 2005; Banister et al. 1997; Possum 1998) including land-use and transport interaction (Cervero 2003, 2002, 2001; Cervero & Murakami, 2010; Cervero & Radisch, 1996; Cervero & Kockleman, 1997; Frank, 2000)47 sustainable mobility (Banister & Streen 1999; Banister 2005, 2008), green/sustainable transport policy and strategy or review of projects (EFTE, 1994; Janic, 2006; Banister, 2005, CEC, 1999, Litman 2003, OECD 2001). A review of definitions48 shows that sustainable transport system prioritises economic and environmental sustainability; commits to social sustainability only with respect to socio-economic welfare without depleting natural resources, destroying the environment and harming human health (Janic, 2006: 84).

Martens (2012) has listed several transport literature talking about distributive justice i.e. other aspects of justice, namely process and politics (see section 3.2.1) are left unaddressed. Moreover, Martens (2012) questions the contribution further observing that the literature has focused on precisely the composite parts such as road and gasoline taxes (Altshuler, 1979); transit investments and subsidies (Cervero 1981; Hodge 1988; Garrett and Taylor 1999); infrastructure investments (Lucy 1988; Brocker et al. 2010); road user charges (Smeed 1964; Richardson 1974; Ecola and Light 2009); and transit service (Murray and Davis 2001; Rucker 1984; Wu and Hine 2003) and distribution of transport- related burdens (e.g., Feitelson 2002; Forkenbrock and Schweitzer 1999; Schweitzer and Valenzuela 2004).

Announcement of 'the sustainable mobility paradigm' (Banister, 2008) is a major step forward. It equally focuses on sustainable mobility and urban sustainability in transport:

47

see Ewing and Cervero (2010, 2001) for reviews of studies on transport and land use 48_{Some definitions are as follows:}

Sustainable transportation is that, which does not endanger public health or ecosystems and that meets needs for access consistent with (a) use of renewable resources that are below their rates of regeneration, and (b) use of non-renewable resources below the rates of development of renewable substitutes. (Wiederkehr, 2004:14)

A sustainable transport system i) allows basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and society to be met safely in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health and promotes equity between successive generations; ii) is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice of transport mode and supports a competitive economy as well as balanced regional development; and iii) limits emissions and waste within the planet’s ability to absorb them, uses renewable resources at or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes while minimising the impacts of the use of land and generation of noise. (CEC, 1999)

A sustainable transport system is one in which fuel consumption, vehicle emissions, safety, congestion, and social and economic access are of such levels that they can be sustained into the indefinite future without causing great or irreparable harm to future generation of people throughout the world. (Richardson, 1999:27)

108

"Sustainable mobility provides an alternative paradigm within which to investigate the complexity of cities, and to strengthen the links between land use and transport" (Banister, 2008:73). However, compared to the way travel, land use issues are investigated, the social dimension is less addressed49. Quoting and complying with Marshall (2001), Banister (2008:75) calls for modal shift to NMT; management based, social dimension and people and NMT focused transport planning. These propositions are very much in line with this research. But, propositions to initiate the process are more technology and behaviour focused, with less, if any, reference to politics: "The sustainable mobility paradigm is moving towards an objective-based planning system that is trying to implement a range of policy interventions, but with an important additional element, namely the support of all stakeholders. Underlying this discussion is the need to understand behaviour, and to explore the means by which cooperation and support can be obtained, so that real change can take place. The notion of personal utility must be placed in the wider context of social welfare" (Banister (2008:79).

However, "given the current conditions of our cities, where a significant part of the population can spend hours only to reach the daily destinations, it is very difficult to separate the two goals [quality of life and sustainable mobility]. The consequence of this is a growing public support to the concept of sustainable mobility or at least to measures that lead to the concept" (Miranda & da Silva, 2012:142). So, sustainable mobility has been in focus for a long list of literature and practical projects. Miranda and da Silva (2012) have developed an index for urban sustainable mobility ('I_SUM') and applied it in Curitiba, Brazil. Despite having a theme namely 'social inclusion' and relevant indicator 'vertical equity', the 'I_SUM' is yet to appreciate other principles of justice (process and politics), stated in section 3.2.1. On the other hand, although literature has started to acknowledge the aspects of justice, projects on sustainable mobility is lagging behind50.

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Banister (2000:115-116) summarised the following issues to be burning from transport perspective for its conformity to sustainable urban development - congestion, increased air pollution, traffic noise, road safety, degradation of urban landscape, space occupation (particularly by auto-oriented infrastructure/facilities), use of fossil fuel (and global warming), dispersed land use development, development pressure in car-accessible locations, globalisation and new pattern (and intensity of) freight transport. Among the targets to achieve sustainability, identified by Banister (2000), include reducing need for travel, compact development, reduce dependence of car and shift to public transport and bike etc. requiring environmentally sensitive local and national/global political intervention.

50 _{Janic (2006) reviewed out of 170 EU project for sustainable mobility under four themes . His findings in each theme is as} follows: (i) Integrated policy aspects of sustainable mobility (discussing issues relating to Understanding the market Visioning the future, Tools and method, Transport management, Pricing and financing, Mobility management, New technologies and transport concepts)-72 projects, (ii) Economic aspects of sustainable mobility (Land-use and macroeconomic effects, Regional linking,

109

Therefore, it can be argued that consideration for a processual component of mobility planning and the question of uneven distribution of power and politics while implementing that plan are yet to be done. (To be true, under the contemporary sustainability theme these aspects are not essentially required to be addressed). In fact, the crux of the problem is that neither the mainstream environmental movement nor the disciplines and literature following it has sufficiently addressed the fact that social inequality and imbalances in social power are at the heart of environmental degradation, resource depletion, pollution, and even overpopulation (Futita, 2009). But, the environmental crisis can simply not be solved without social justice (Bullard, 1993b:23). Just as environment is not "colour-blind" (Ageyman & Evans, 1999:3) nor transport and mobilities are power-blind. So, appreciating entire aspects of justice in the just mobilities framework developed latter in this chapter, is sought to contribute toward fulfilment of the felt need in the 'sustainable mobility paradigm' and other transport studies.