The concept of liveable public open spaces in the Middle Eastern context Middle Eastern context

There is evidence in the literature of the rising need to provide sufficient public open spaces in the Middle East, that people can use and enjoy (Mandeli 2010). The need identified by various authors is to develop a new design approach for public open spaces in the region, based on Islamic traditions and the local environment, economic situation and social values, alongside modern social requirements. In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literature concerning design concepts, which have provided successful contemporary public open spaces in the Middle East.

Researchers have revealed a set of concepts that promote quality in public spaces and enhance their liveable usage. Such researchers include: Germeraad (1993); Abdel-Hadi et al., (2009); Mandeli (2010); Ravazzoli & Toso (2013); Shayya (2012);

Salama (2012); and Fraser (2012).

These concepts are classified below into social, economic and environmental dimensions, as defined earlier in section 2.3 with concepts from Western literature.

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However, there is much less literature and information in this area when it comes to the Middle East than there is in the West, which is reflected in the content of this section. The majority of published research attempts to study the role of public open space design in achieving the culture and setting of the Arab-Muslim region in the Middle East. These studies have summarised a number of urban design criteria that need to be considered in order to provide a suitable contemporary approach for public open spaces in Middle Eastern cities.

2.6.1 Social dimension

As discussed in section 2.3.1, the social dimension is concerned with the way users interact with the space. Contemporary public open spaces disregard the social factor in their designs for public open spaces in the Middle East (Germeraad 1990). Abdel-Hadi et al. (2009) state that socio-cultural senses of belonging, security, privacy and safety are intermediary variables in the provision of usable space, while Islamic values and guidelines are major factors in providing liveable public open spaces, due to their embedded influence on people’s lives and beliefs. Therefore, these values need to be integrated and considered in the design of new urban spaces (Zohadi 2012).

Consideration of social ethos

Public open spaces in the Middle East have become prestigious projects of beautification, with an emphasis on being visually pleasing, rather than liveable places, which satisfy the requirements of the users (Akbar 1984). Under the flag of modernity, public open spaces in the Middle East appear more as a product of an urban design process controlled by the economy and Western concepts, rather than a mixture of historical and modern achievement (Aga Khan Award for Architectural, seminar proceedings 1978-1986: cited in Germeraad 1990). Although adopting Western concepts emphasises economic wealth, it neglects the ethical and the aesthetic values strongly rooted in the user culture. Consequently, these spaces have

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been abandoned. Germeraad (1993) concluded that the causes for the emphasis on the man-made in urban design stem from the adoption of the form of Western concepts, rather than the needs of local users and their social and religious values.

Consideration of the cultural ethos needs to be approached with sensitivity, because it is not a fixed issue and it has been dramatically transformed by modernity. It is also not equivalent in all Middle Eastern countries, as it even differs between towns and villages within the same country.

Middle Eastern society consists of a mixture of different ethnicities, languages, customs, traditions and belief systems. Despite the fact that there has been a large percentage of migrants living in Arab countries for decades, their cultural identity has been neglected in the current planning system (Zohadi 2012). Public spaces in GCC cities (see section 4.5) have failed to draw users from all community groups and ethnicities (Salama 2012). Public open spaces lack a provision of suitable conditions that contribute to the achievement of diversity (Salama 2012). Zohadi stressed that there is a requirement to consider that the unique characteristics of all groups within society are taken into account and symbolically represented in the built environment (Zohadi 2012).

Spatial identity

The analysis of spatial identity has provided evidence that identity factors (such as nationalism and religion) appear to be more deeply embedded in humans than political and economic ideologies or systems (Van Boven and Van Loon 1989: cited in Germeraad 1993). Human beings ascribe meaning to any space, and through cultural and social meanings, they re-think its physicality. This socially created meaning in public open spaces has developed as a ‘space of belonging’, a ‘space of cultural sharing’ and strengthens the ‘sense of community’, which emphasises space liveability. This has been demonstrated in Tahir square (among others) in Egypt during the January 2011 Revolution (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013). Moreover, this cultural practice adds a new spatial social representational symbolism, which is later

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associated with national history, as in the case of Tahrir Square (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013).

Value of place-continuity in time

The value of place-continuity in time is the value that time adds to any space in which it creates meaning to the user and promotes liveability. Contemporary public open spaces in Middle Eastern countries are no longer based on Islamic and regional traditions (Germeraad 1990). The value of place-continuity in time, in connection with the past, remains unrecognised, due to the fundamental configuration of buildings in the urban core, which were replaced by modern Western designs as part of the modernisation process (Germeraad 1990). The past of the urban physical environment is reshaped by Western influence (Germeraad 1990). However, contemporary public space must include contemporary forms of open space design in which Islamic ideals are expressed in both its use and physical structure. Holod (1986) states that for successful implementation of a modern design concept in the Middle East, proper consideration of social-religious expectations drawn from the Qur’an and Sunnah is needed. The inherited tradition in this context is therefore considered as the reference frame, but seen through the ‘eye-glasses of the future’

(Kuban 1978).

Users’ needs

Liveable public open spaces are those which meet the requirements of its users.

Although this concept is fundamental in traditional Islamic open spaces, it is generally disregarded in contemporary spaces in the Middle East (Aljabri and Smith 2013b). Research conducted in Saudi Arabia has demonstrated that public open spaces do not respond to those for whom they are designed, and are without any socio-cultural value, such as privacy and territoriality (Al-Abdullah 1998). For example, in public open spaces in Dammam, the grassy open flat area is never used

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in the manner for which it was designed, with cars, chairs and personal belongings used to provide vertical barriers in order to create private spaces for picnicking (Al-Abdullah 1998).

Tahrir Square in Egypt after January 2011 is a further example of the considerable gap between the ways planners design a public space, and its use in practice. During the protests, users redesigned the square into a liveable space, informally adding structures such as cafes, tea stands and food stalls. Shops were extended outside their premises and there were temporary street vendors, alongside informal use of parking lots (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013). Within the space of three months, protestors in Cairo constructed the Al-Mi’timdija Exit, which is a 45-mile-long ramp that connects directly with the Ring Road. The New York Times (2013) stated: ‘In the absence of functioning government, they built ramps from dirt, sand and trash. Then they invited the police to open a kiosk at the interchange’ (Kimmelman 2013 p. A1: cited in Ravazzoli & Toso 2013). In this sense, new interventions in the planning of Middle Eastern cities need to be grounded in an alternative conception of legality that considers users of the space, rather than on the recognised definition of legality (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013).

Social engagement

Providing social engagement which promotes enjoyable discoveries, public art and physical challenges for all community groups, is important in the promotion of liveable space (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009). People are attracted to spaces that provide alternative engagement and that respond to social needs (Shayya 2012). People in the Middle East no longer use public open spaces as part of their daily activities, and therefore, creating programmed events and activities both during the day and in the evenings would help users in developing new experiences (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009).

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Research conducted in different case studies in Cairo resulted in a conclusion that users prefer spaces that act as an area to meet friends, make family outings, socialise with others, and eat and drink (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009). Shayya (2012) found in his three case studies in Beirut, that people enjoy most of their socialising, free time and political and cultural deliberations in areas of consumption, such as cafés and restaurants, on the street, in open spaces or inside shopping malls. In order to promote liveability, a public open space needs to provide opportunities for users to meet and socialise.

Personal distance

As noted earlier, personal distance varies between different cultures. In the Middle East, personal distance is influenced by the culture of gender segregation. While it ranges between 1.26- 3.8 metres within the same gender, it widens up to1.69- 6.53 meters with those from opposite genders (Farah 2001). Such cultural issues need to be considered carefully when designing public open spaces, in order to create a comfortable layout for users.

Safety

Safety from anti-social behaviour and vehicles is one of the main elements of a good open space, not only in the Middle East but as a global standard. Perceived problems of teenagers and the unemployed hanging around have been identified as major concerns from users, and a factor keeping them from enjoying some public open spaces in Cairo (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009). Safety is essential in order to provide a liveable open space.

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2.6.2 Economic dimension

Economic factors act as a connection between urban design and social practices.

They help shape a contextually adapted understanding of places. Therefore, providing a public open space with the potential for mixed use is a fundamental factor in enhancing its liveability (Shayya 2012).

Mixed use space

Multi-use gives a reason to congregate and socialise. In a study undertaken in Cairo, users viewed shopping as the main factor of liveable space (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009).

There is a need to implement this concept in order to enhance the liveability of open spaces, and thus meet users’ needs (Shayya 2012). Moreover, in his study on three open spaces in Beirut, Shayya (2012) concluded that the ideal example of liveable space is not one that has simply adopted Western models, but rather one that has commercial activities which have always have been rooted in the region’s traditions.

Although commercial activities were used in traditional spaces in the Middle East, they are not usually well provided for in contemporary public open spaces (Shayya 2012) and (Aljabri and Smith 2013b).

Place management

The majority of spaces in the region could easily decrease in quality, because their long-term funding management is not considered, or due to the transferring of their budgets to fund other projects (Mandeli 2010). Mandeli 2010 attempts to address the Western concept on public open space management in Middle Eastern cities, taking Jeddah as a case study. Research has revealed that using commercial and leisure activities in promoting long-term management plans is highly effective when it comes to the continuity of liveability in a space (Mandeli 2010).

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The consumption of food and drink is a basic human need that gives users an excuse to both visit and remain in a public space. Cafes, tea stands, food stalls, and temporary street vendors are all considered major attractions for users, and contribute to creating a liveable open space in the region (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013).

2.6.3 Environmental/physical dimension

As discussed in section 2.3.3, the environmental/physical dimension consists of the overall appearance and quality of the built environment of the space. It is concerned with the design concepts that make its use appear inviting. A number of concepts relating to the environmental dimension have been drawn from Middle Eastern literature, as discussed below.

Car free or car management space

Liveable open spaces need to be designed for pedestrians, and therefore be less polluted and less noisy. Modern design concepts tend to come from cities where accessibility is mainly based on vehicular movement (Germeraad 1990). Due to the domination of roads and issues of car parking, public open spaces tend to make a small and non-positive contribution to the urban fabric (Taylor 2012). Most have been built as a ‘space in-between buildings’, and are largely identified by streets. The lack of public space has been caused mainly by giving priority to traffic, privatisation and budget shortages (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013). Ravazzoli & Toso (2013) claim that this could eventually cause social segregation (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013). Bianca (1988) predicted that this process could eventually cause over-development of enclosed shopping malls on the outskirts of cities, which would gradually isolate the historical buildings and lead to a lack of understanding when it came to preservation (Germeraad 1990). Public open space is hence often deprived of its social and

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commercial role (Bianca 1988: cited in Germeraad 1990). This creates disorientation and less comfortable open spaces. Shayya (2012) disagreed with Sorkin’s description of the end of public space in light of the emergence of a mall culture: he believes that public spaces still have potential in Middle Eastern countries, as they demonstrate a vibrant political sphere, in addition to retail and leisure activity, as is the case of Beirut.

Micro- Climate conditions

Climatic and geographical factors have a great effect on types of urban design and lifestyles and are highly influential when it comes to providing liveable spaces in the Middle East. Broadbent (1990) states that climate considerations are deeply embedded in the Arabian tradition and were assimilated by Islam (Broadbent 1990).

Nevertheless, the recent design of open spaces in the region has ignored the climate and there is absence of clear spatially defined open spaces (Germeraad 1990), (Kiet 2010) and (Aljabri and Smith 2013a).

The ideal design concepts for creating thermal comfort for users in public spaces include shade and smallness of scale, which encourage not only walking, but for users to remain for a considerable length of time. Providing shaded areas with protected shelter from the sun is helpful in creating a comfort zone within the space. In addition, using different types of greenery and plants assists in cooling and circulating the air (Hassaan & Mahmoud 2011). Researchers found that trees provided in regular repetition have a positive impact on microclimate during the day and reduce the penetration of solar radiation on surfaces, due to the partially shaded areas (Hassaan

& Mahmoud 2011). The Estidama Pearl Rating System in Abu Dhabi is a promising example of designing open spaces with consideration for the climate (Fraser 2012).

The success of such a project would introduce a good contemporary example of climate consideration in public open spaces. Materials also play a fundamental role in achieving thermal comfort. There is evidence of the effect of using high albedo (i.e. low heat absorption) materials in cooling down the atmosphere (Fraser 2012).

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Good design in water elements, alongside the greenery, can play a dramatic contribution towards providing a pleasant thermal environment for users (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009).

In a major study on public open spaces in Egypt, Hassan & Mahmoud (2011) set out a number of fundamental recommendations to assess the provision of landscape elements in creating human comfort in hot arid regions. These recommendations include:

1. Shade should be provided close to a water feature, so as to combine the effects of shading and evaporative cooling;

2. In the case of parks, deciduous trees are suggested in order to provide shade in summer and permit solar radiation in winter;

3. Light structures (such as pergolas and kiosks) are suggested, as they provide shade and their design can control the angle and direction of the solar radiation according to careful study of the solar chart;

4. Surface albedo is a crucial consideration in designing for an open space.

Cool materials on large surfaces are highly recommended. Asphalt and dark finishings must be avoided in order to reduce the urban heat island effect; and

5. Control of wind is an essential factor in landscape design. Human beings are usually exposed to wind in outdoor spaces where there are few barriers.

The design of tree groupings and various layers of vegetation can play a major role in maintaining higher levels of satisfaction in outdoor spaces in hot and arid environments (Hassaan & Mahmoud 2011).

Accessibility

Good access facilitates a liveable square (Ravazzoli & Toso 2013). Integrated transport systems promote different modes of travel, such as bus, metro, walking and cycling. A successful transportation system encourages use of open spaces. There

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have been a small number of attempts to achieve this, such as ubai’s metro and the adoption of these concepts in Abu Dhabi strategies to apply a coherent pedestrian and cycle network across the entire Emirate. Moreover, in Qatar, the adaption of an integrated multi-trip transport network is being proposed as essential for tourists to the 2022 World Cup (Fraser 2012). However, implementing such concepts is highly challenging in the Middle East region, due to its thermal conditions. The hot weather in the region during midday in the majority of the year is the barrier against walking and cycling. In addition, pedestrians suffer from the poor continuity and condition of footpaths (Taylor 2012).

Visual complexity

Visual complexity comprises an immediate attractiveness that invites use of a space.

In the study of Abdel-Hadi et al. (2009), users stressed that the visual beauty of the built environment and natural spectacles are one of its main attractions. A high quality of frontages and the spatial aspect is also one of the factors encouraging use of the space, including well designed street furniture, seating spaces, lighting, signage and landscape (Abdel-Hadi et al. 2009).

Islamic patterns/Geometry

Authors such as Jairazbhoy (1964), Sardar (1985) and Fathy (1983), argue that geometry is a key Islamic physical ordering principle for public open spaces.

Nevertheless, Akbar (1984) claimed that the Islamic concept of designing open spaces using geometry is a hypothetical concept developed by Muslims scholars, and for him does not have sufficient evidence from Islamic traditional settlements. Other scholars besides Akbar (1984), such as Haider (1986), Grabar (1983) and Germerraad (1990), stress that geometry has not been a design principle for public open spaces in the Islamic world, but it is certainly an artistic means of symbolising specific basic Islamic values. Geometry was used intensively as an artistic decorative

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element for pavements, walls and fountains. As authorities began to recognise the loss of identity due to the modernisation process, they began searching for national identity using a design language to reinforce such identity, rather than the meaning of the local design ethos (Germeraad 1990). Islamic geometric patterns have also been used as one of the design principles in contemporary public open spaces in the region (Fraser 2012). Governments in the region have continued to impose Western design concepts, but this time incorporating local design features in an attempt to maintain the local identity, which tends to use geometric and architectural elements (for

element for pavements, walls and fountains. As authorities began to recognise the loss of identity due to the modernisation process, they began searching for national identity using a design language to reinforce such identity, rather than the meaning of the local design ethos (Germeraad 1990). Islamic geometric patterns have also been used as one of the design principles in contemporary public open spaces in the region (Fraser 2012). Governments in the region have continued to impose Western design concepts, but this time incorporating local design features in an attempt to maintain the local identity, which tends to use geometric and architectural elements (for