Concept of blended-learning in a MOOC context

At present, the technology used in university among students and lecturers in blended-learning has advanced into opening a new era of teaching and learning. The modern blended-learning environments allow educators to create in-house content to deliver courses to traditional face-to-face learners using free online open sources such as LMSs or to franchise with other existing commercial learning platforms. An example of such open LMSs commonly used nowadays in universities is the modu- lar object-oriented dynamic learning environment (Moodle), which allows educators to upload and manage their online blended course and lesson content [304]. Bonk [44] mentioned some very interesting facts about open learning sources. First, the sources allow universities and other institutions to offer high tuition fee courses. Second, they produce more linguistic and cultural sources available to individuals with limited access to them. Third, they create like-minded communities to share ideas and knowledge among educators to help in improving other sectors.

The traditional educational system has been the foundation of education; however, the popularity of e-learning systems has led to several opportunities in di- recting self-learning. Thus, more institutions and universities are employing blended- learning instruction to manage the conventional way of teaching. The blended- learning environment is the combination of two different methods of teaching: one is the traditional face-to-face within the ‘bricks and mortar’ setting and the second is based on the online learning approach. The online blended-learning environment is an extension of face-to-face teaching, which provides an opportunity for students to continue their studies during after school hours, complementing their reading through thought materials and assessment exercises in a self-directed manner [276]. MacDonald [196] argued that the blended-learning approach has become im- perative in a second language classroom, as this approach of teaching and learning combines both traditional methods and online applications in delivery course con- tent to students. In addition, blended-learning provides wider benefits and scope for learning, enhances learning effectiveness among students, and lastly reduces the cost and time in obtaining quicker information and knowledge. Students in blended- learning classrooms must motivate and encourage themselves to attain their learning objectives. On the other hand, many factors encourage learning, but it has been noted that SRL influences and plays a vital role in students’ academic attainment [245].

Similarly, as students decide their approach to learning using the resource materials, they develop the required skills to self-direct and regulate their learn- ing behaviours. This process of students planning and regulating their studies is called SRL [96, 234, 42]. According to Zimmerman [350], self-regulation of learn- ing encompasses the students’ actions, thoughts, reflections, and feelings towards achieving individual goals. In a related study, Zimmerman [349] argued that SRL is imperative to the three popular aspects of academic learning: motivation, cognition, and behaviour.

Zimmerman [347] classified these three characteristics of SRL as follows. First, the study mentioned that self-regulation of behaviour encompasses the full control of the learning resources for the student use, which, in this case, encompasses learning time, environment of study, and support from tutors and peers [237]. It has been noted that, if perceptions of self-regulation in regards to good behaviour are managed effectively, this will enable learners to improve in their patterns of learning to attain better academic performance [163]. Second, self-regulation of motivation comprises the process of controlling and changing motivational beliefs, for example learners changing their self-efficacy and goal orientation to fit into the requirement

of the course to achieve optimum academic success. In addition to this, students could improve in the skills of controlling their emotions and anxiety to promote SRL skills. Last, self-regulation of cognition involves the autonomous control of several cognitive strategies used for learning, such as the application of deep processing strategies that enhance effective academic performance and learning [114].

According to Cleary and Zimmerman [64], the ability of students to regulate their learning approaches is the key to succeeding academically and beyond. Several studies have been done on successful learning and on the design of new learning envi- ronments, which have attributes, such as learning skills, knowledge, and behaviours associated with attaining SRL [157]. Moreover, SRL depends on the learners’ abil- ity and readiness to engage in a learning process by stimulating new motivational strategies to maintain their emotions, thoughts, actions, and beliefs to achieve their set goals [221]. In this case, learners set specific learning goals in relation to the task that should be completed, considering the characteristics and requirements of the task. Kreber et al. [171] argued that to attain success in each task, learners should take full control, monitor, and regulate their cognition abilities, emotions, and actions.

This study proposed to investigate the process of SRL, which was observed from a preliminary exploration conducted on two distinct learner population sam- ples. Section 2.7 presents an extensive discussion of SRL habits, the two popular models: Zimmerman’s model and Butler and Winne’s model, some of the instru- ments applied in measuring SRL skills, and the six existing dimensions or strategies adopted in this study.