Conceptions

In the phenomenographic approach, the term “conception” is used to refer to ‘people’s ways o f experiencing or making sense o f their world’ (Sandberg, 2000: 12). Conception in this sense signifies:

‘... the relation between man and an aspect o f the surrounding world. It (the conception) is created by the activity o f man. The activity implies a delimitation of, a differentiation

within and a selection and organisation of, meaning content o f an aspect o f the

experienced world’ (Svensson (1984), cited in Sandberg, 1997: 204). In the presentation of phenomenographic studies, terms such as conceptions, ways of experiencing, ways of understanding or ways of comprehending have been used interchangeably.

Conceptions are usually expressed in the form o f categories o f description. The purpose of categories of description is to characterise the variety o f ways in which a

phenomenon can be explained. The basic premise of phenomenographic research is to then establish and describe individuals’ conceptions o f an aspect o f reality as accurately as possible (Sandberg, 1997). The type o f knowledge aimed at is qualitative

descriptions, which now become the results of the research. Therefore, the focus on categories of description as the main result represents a shift in focus from relations (in the form o f variable-based quantitative descriptions) to categories, ‘and from categories as predefined assumptions to categories as results’ (Svensson, 1997: 164).

In this thesis, a conception represents the inextricable relation between the conceived meaning of reality (what is conceived) and the experiences in which the conceived meaning manifests itself (how it is conceived) (Sandberg, 2000). Bowden and Walsh (2000) suggest that a conception is a construction o f the mind that is usually held rather than articulated (Johansson et al. (1985) cited in Bowden and Walsh, 2000).

As discussed, the conceptions developed by the Goteborg research produced descriptions o f how students learned. A choice was made to describe knowledge in terms of an individual’s understanding of a phenomenon, the meaning that the

phenomenon had to the person. This represented a shift from an objectivistic view of knowledge to a more subjectivistic and relative view, which assumes that knowledge is essentially concerned with meaning in a social and cultural context (Svensson, 1997; Barnard et al., 1999). Knowledge was regarded as the meaning of wholes representing objects or phenomena. Therefore, the knowledge expressed by the students was described in the form of conceptions, namely meanings and understandings of phenomena (Svensson, 1997). There is a clear difference between this view of subjective knowledge as the object of research and the positivistic and objectivistic views that are prominent in research in psychology and education.

The conceptions themselves are the focus o f phenomenographic research, rather than the individuals who hold them. They are the units o f description in phenomenographic research (Marton and Pong, 2005). The objective is not to document an individual’s understanding of a phenomenon, but rather map the collective experience and understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (Liu and Lesniak, 2006). The objective of a phenomenographic study is to describe the variation in the ways in which humans experience a particular phenomenon, regardless of whether the differences are between individuals or within individuals (Marton and Booth, 1997). The ‘individuals are seen to be the bearers of different ways o f experiencing a phenomenon or fragments o f such a phenomenon. However, the description o f the variation is collective so that one consequence is that individual voices are not heard’ (Giorgi, 1999: 72).

Conceptions are found to have a logical relationship with each other (Marton, 1994) and, as a rule, form a hierarchy. Their hierarchical structure can be established in terms of increasing complexity in ways of experiencing the phenomenon, being aware o f the phenomenon (Marton and Booth, 1997). More complex conceptions ‘accord with the ability to simultaneously discern and hold in awareness more parts or more ways of experiencing the phenomenon’ (Watkins, 2000: 103). In contrast, less complex conceptions correspond with partial ways o f experiencing the phenomenon.

From a phenomenographic perspective, conceptions are central to knowledge

description, and as such, phenomenography is contended to be a research field on its own (Marton, 1986; Barnard et al., 1999). Knowledge is argued to be an outcome of the process o f thinking that depends on the world external to the person (Svensson, 1997). Knowledge is assumed to be relational (Svensson, 1997), and ‘it involves the continual interrelationship between thought, experience, and a phenomenon’ (Barnard et al., 1999: 215). In phenomenographic research, it is assumed that both subject and object are internally related, and a conception is a representation o f their relationship.

A large number o f studies has now been conducted using the phenomenographic research approach. Some studies have focused on learning and research in the

educational domain. Table 4-1 summarises six pieces of such research and presents the categories of conceptions that emerged organised in a hierarchical structure. As a result o f the initial research in educational learning and teaching, it was proposed that if students held a limited number o f qualitative conceptions of learning, then it would be

reasonable to expect that individuals have limited numbers of qualitatively different understandings o f all types of phenomena (Marton, 1986; Marton and Booth, 1997).

Over the past decades, phenomenography has continued to be used and evolve as a qualitative research approach in educational research (Barnard et al., 1999). Overall, phenomenography has evolved into a research approach that aims to describe conceptions of the world around us (Marton, 1981). It has been used to investigate diverse research interests centered upon people’s conceptions of various phenomena. Table 4-2 summarises six pieces of phenomenographic research from a variety o f fields other than education (i.e. nursing, competence at work, etc). These studies confirm that the original finding from phenomenographic research in education, namely that any aspect of reality is understood in only a limited number of qualitatively different ways, is also applicable to other knowledge domains.

Table 4-1: Examples of Phenomenographic Research on Learning and Education

Study Phenomenon

(Reality)

Sample Size (N)

Conceptions Hierarchical Relationship

Prosser and Millar (1989)

Learning physics - Understanding of tasks involving reducing velocity

N=16 Conceptions of tasks involving reducing velocity were:

C l: An external frictional force opposite to the direction of motion

C2: An inherent force in the direction of motion less than the frictional force opposite to the direction of motion

C3: An inherent force in the direction of motion greater than the external frictional force opposite to the direction of motion

In Newtonian physics terms, the conceptions form a hierarchy with conception Cl being correct, conception C2 being partially correct and conception C3 being incorrect.

Renstrom, Andersson and Marton (1990) Learning chemistry - The nature of matter

N=20 Students’ conceptions of matter included matter as:

C1: A homogeneous substance C2: Substance units

C3: Substance units with small atoms C4: An aggregate of particles

C5: Particle units C6: Systems of particles

The six conceptions form a hierarchy, according to their defining features, and incorporating additional elements that represent a more complete understanding of matter. The hierarchy ranges from matter being viewed as a homogeneous substance in conception Cl to matter understood as consisting of systems of particles in conception C6. Samuelowicz and Bain (1992) University teachers’ conceptions of their teaching in science and social science

N=13 Teachers’ conceptions included, teaching as: C1: Imparting information

C2: Transmission of knowledge and attitudes to knowledge within the framework of an academic discipline

C3: Facilitating understanding

C4: An activity aimed at changing students’ conceptions or understanding of the world C5: Supporting student learning

The conceptions form a hierarchy ranging from teacher centered activities to

collaboration with the students to stimulate their understanding.

Study Phenomenon (Reality)

Sample Size (N)

Conceptions Hierarchical Relationship

Dali’Alba (1991) Teaching in higher education

N=20 Teachers conceptions of teaching as: Cl: Presenting information

C2: Transmitting information

C3: Illustrating the application of theory to practice

C4: Developing concepts/principles and their interrelations

C5: Developing the capacity to be expert C6: Exploring ways of understanding from particular perspectives

C7: Bringing about conceptual change

The seven conceptions identified form a hierarchy with the lower conceptions focusing on what the teacher does and then higher conception levels incorporating the content and focusing on students’ understanding of the content. At the highest level, the relationship between teacher, student and content becomes the focus.

Marton, Dali’alba and Beaty (1993)

Students’ conceptions of learning

N=29 Students’ conceptions of learning include: Cl: Increasing one’s knowledge

C2: Memorising and reproducing C3: Applying

C4: Understanding

C5: Seeing something in a different way C6: Changing as a person

The six conceptions form a hierarchy. The first three conceptions focus on quantitative, external aspects of learning, while the latter three conceptions are qualitative, reflecting a deeper approach focusing on internal aspects of learning. Boulton-Lewis, Smith, McCrindle, Burnett and Campbell (2001) Conceptions of teaching and learning of secondary school teachers

N=16 Teachers’ conceptions of teaching were: Cl: Transmission of contents/skills C2: Development of skills/understanding C3: Facilitation of understanding

C4: Transformation of students

Teachers’ conceptions of learning were: C1: Acquisition and reproduction of content/skills

C2: Development and application of skills/understanding

C3: Development of understanding C4: Transformation of learners

There is a hierarchical relation among the conceptions in both cases. In the case of teaching, the focus evolves from transmitting content (Cl), then developing skills and understanding (C2), to a teacher/student interaction to further develop personal meaning and understanding (C3) and ends with the student changing as a person (C4). In the case of learning, the focus moves from a content focus (Cl), to a competence focus (C2), to a meaning focus (C3) and ends with a growth focus (C4).

Table 4-2: Examples of Phenomenographic Research on Subjects other than Learning and Education

Study Phenomenon

(Reality)

Sample Size (N)

Conceptions Hierarchical Relationship

Lundborg, Wahlstrom and Dall’Alba (1999)

Asthma management

N=20 General Practitioners’ conceptions of asthma management were:

C1: Conveying information and instructions for the patient to follow

C2: Informing and explaining so the patient gains applicable knowledge

C3: Facilitating the patient’s understanding of the disease and its management

C4: Listening, giving advice for improved/maintained quality of life

The four conceptions form a hierarchy. Conceptions Cl, C2 and C3 focus on the disease itself, while in conception C4, the whole life of the patient is emphasised.

Sandberg (2000) Competence at engine

optimisation

N=20 Engine optimisers’ conceptions of their work were engine optimisation as:

Cl: Optimising separate qualities C2: Optimising interacting qualities C3: Optimising from the customer’s perspective

The three conceptions form a hierarchy in terms of increasing comprehensiveness, with Cl being the least comprehensive conception (optimising separate engine qualities), C2 being more comprehensive than C1 (includes engine qualities and the relationships between them) and C3 being the most comprehensive (includes the relationship between the optimised engine and the customer). McMahon and

Bruce (2002)

Information literacy needs of local staff in cross- cultural

development projects

N=5 The conceptions that emerged were: Cl: Basic literacy skills

C2: Understanding workplace systems C3: Communication skills

C4: Accessing information sources C5: Understanding the dominant society

The five conceptions are linked in a hierarchical relationship of increasing

complexity and awareness of different aspects within the development context.

Study Phenomenon (Reality)

Sample Size (N)

Conceptions Hierarchical Relationship

Akerlind and Kayrooz (2003)

Academic freedom N=165 Social scientists’ conceptions of academic freedom were:

C l: An absence of constraints on academics’ activities

C2: An absence of constraints, within certain self-regulated limits

C3: An absence of constraints, within certain externally-regulated limits

C4: An absence of constraints combined with active institutional support

C5: An absence of constraints combined with responsibilities on the part of the academic

The conceptions exhibit a hierarchical relationship, with conception Cl being modified throughout the hierarchy first via controls (in C2 and C3), then through institutional support for academic freedom (C4) and finally with responsibilities on the part of the academic (C5).

Partington, Pellegrinelli and Young (2005) Programme management competence

N=15 Programme managers’ conceptions of competence were:

C1: Concern for delivery of programme scope C2: Concern for wider organisational impact of the programme

C3: Concern for achievement of high-level programme outcomes

C4: Concern for development of strategic capabilities

The four conceptions form a hierarchy, with conception Cl focusing on the delivery of the programme, conception C2 also including a concern for the wider organisational impact of the programme, conception C3 expanding this understanding to now emphasise the outcome of the programme and conception C4 focusing on the development of strategic capabilities through the programme.

Chen and Partington (2006) Construction project management competence

N-30 Project managers’ conceptions were: Cl: Project management as planning and controlling

C2: Project management as organising and coordinating

C3: Project management as predicting and managing potential problems

The conceptions form a hierarchy. Conception C1 focuses on the construction work process and individual subcontractors. Conception C2 expands this to include the organisation and coordination of interfaces of work tasks on site. Conception C3 further expands this understanding to include the prediction and management of potential problems.