The concepts of the contemporary and comprehensive learning theory

The theory has two fundamental assumptions and three dimensions of learning (Illeris, 2003). The two fundamental assumptions are that all learning is an interaction of two different processes, the internal and the external, as illustrated in the next page:

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Figure 4.2: The Fundamental processes of learning. Source: Illeris (2003, p.399)

Figure 4.2 illustrates the two fundamental assumptions of learning: the internal and external interaction processes of learning. The first assumption, symbolized by the vertical double- headed arrow, is represented by the interaction of the individual learner (at the top) with the environment which is placed at the bottom as the basis of the interaction. The interaction is between the learner and his or her social, cultural and material environment. For instance, during the youth’s developmental stages until the time of this current study, there was and still is an interaction between the youth and environment, which is the context which has contributed to them being categorized as NEETs.

The second assumption, which is represented by the horizontal double-headed arrows, is internal to the learner. This is the internal psychological process of acquisition and elaboration; the connection of new impulses as a result of learning (Illeris, 2003). According to this theory, in any learning process, the internal psychological process of acquisition and elaboration of knowledge and skills should interact with the learners’ external processes of the social, cultural and material environment. Illeris (2003) argues that theorists tend to deal with the external and internal processes separately whilst in the contemporary and comprehensive learning theory he proposes that both processes should be active for any learning to take place.

The contemporary learning theory also focuses on three learning dimensions comprising of cognition, emotion and societal dimensions (Illeris, 2003; McClusky et al., 2007). These dimensions are illustrated in Figure 4. 3 in the next page:

INDIVIDUAL

COGNITION _acquisition EMOTION

Inter action

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SOCIETY

Figure 4.3: The processes and dimensions of learning. Source: Illeris (2003, p. 400)

The core claim of Illeris’s (2003) theory, as illustrated in Figure 4.3, is that all learning always involves three dimensions or spheres. The three dimensions model emphasizes that in any learning process, within society, there is the development of functionality, sensibility and sociality.

The theory’s three dimensions model is illustrated above by an inverted triangle, two of whose points are cognition (knowledge and skills) – the individuals’ functionality; and emotion (feelings and motivation) – the individuals’ sensibility, which are at the top. The third point is the environment – the individuals’ sociality, which is at the bottom.

The function of cognition refers to the learning content: the ‘knowledge and motor learning which are both controlled by the nervous system’ (McClusky, Illeris & Jarvis, 2007, cited in Merriam et al., 2007, p. 97). Within this dimension, the learners construct meaning and ability which enable them to deal with everyday changes. This meaning-making ability develops or results in an individual’s functionality. The emotional or psychodynamic dimension secures mental balance and assists in developing personal sensibility. This dimension involves ‘psychological energy, transmitted feelings, emotions, attitudes and motivations which both mobilize and, at the same time, are conditions that may be influenced and developed through

COGNITION EMOTION acquisition Inter action ENVIRONMENT SOCIALITY integration mental balance Meaning ability FUNCTIONALITY SENSIBILITYY

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learning’ (ibid, p. 97). Both the cognition and emotional functions are internal or psychological functions illustrated by the horizontal double-headed arrow.

To complete the triangle the cognition and emotional dimensions are then connected to the environment which is at the bottom. The environment is the external or social dimension in the learning process. This dimension helps to build up the sociability of the individual as learning happens through participation, communication or co-operation with other people in his or her environment. Therefore, according to Illeris (2003), all three dimensions function within a given society indicated by the placing of the entire learning process within a circle. Illeris’ (2003) theory also bases its concept of learning on the assumption that a learner is actively involved in constructing his or her own knowledge. It states that in constructing knowledge a learner activates four levels of learning which are different in scope and nature. These levels or types of learning activated in different situations and connections are cumulative, assimilative, accommodative and transformative learning (Illeris, 2003; McClusky, 2007). Cumulative or mechanical learning is most frequent during the first years of life and happens in special situations in the other stages. This is isolated information about something new that is not related to any other part. It is usually characterized by automation; recalled and applied information in similar learning contexts such as remembering personal identity numbers, telephone numbers and pin codes.

Assimilative learning or learning by addition is the common form of learning. Ordinarily, ‘the design of many educational and school activities, are concentrated on and often only aimed at assimilative learning’ (Illeris 2003, p. 403). Assimilative learning involves linking new to existing information. It takes place in all contexts of learning as one gradually develops one’s cognitive, emotional or social capacities. This form of learning is characterized by the application of what is learnt within that context but is challenging when there is a need to apply or transfer what has been learnt across fields.

Accommodative or transcendent learning takes place when the learner finds difficulty in understanding or relating to new knowledge. For the learner to make meaning of what he finds interesting or important, there is a need for breaking down or reviewing what one already knows to accommodate the new information. This process can require mental energy as the individual may have to cross existing limitations to accept and understand something that is significantly new. This form of learning can be transferred to other relevant contexts as a result of internalization. Both assimilative and accommodative learning characterize every day, general and sound learning (Illeris, 2003).

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Transformative or expansive learning is a very demanding process of learning which usually takes place as a result of a crises-like situation and often results in personality changes in order to move forward (Illeris, 2003; Merriam, 2007; Salva-Mut, 2015). According to Merriam et al. (2007), the contemporary and comprehensive learning theory can also be used to understand resistance to or rejection of learning as well as transformational learning. Transformational learning may include simultaneous changes in all the three dimensions of learning: cognitive, emotional and the environment (social context). This form of learning links the whole person (body, mind, self, life history) with her/his social context as the individual makes sense of life experiences through a process of ‘using prior interpretation to construct new or revised interpretation of meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action’ (Merriam, 2007).

There are four main components of transformative learning: experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse and action. Although the transformative learning process begins with experience, experience alone does not result in transformative learning. For Mezirow (1995), critical reflection is the key component of transformative learning (Merriam, 2007).

According to Merriam et al. (2007), thinking is different from critical reflection that results in transformative learning. Critical reflection is a cognitive process that involves examining underlying beliefs and assumptions that affect how we make sense of an experience (ibid.). Merriam et al. (2007) point out the importance of social interaction as one of the conditions for critical reflection that result in transformative learning. Merriam et al. (2007, p. 134) further point out that ‘clearer understanding is achieved through talking with others’. In my view this assertion agrees with the need for a shared understanding of what one believes in and a willingness to justify or supply reasons for that belief (Rule, 2004). Rule (2004) therefore argues for a need of a critical or dialogic space where individuals meet to reflect on their realities as they adapt, reject and adopt development strategies about their future. He presents conditions for effective dialogue as a need for a physical place to meet, freedom of communication amongst the people, an attitude of openness towards learning from one another, a negotiation of new sets of relationship where dominance (knowledge as a preserve of the few) is rejected, and reflection and consensus which may not necessarily mean there can be no conflicts. In my view, if some of these conditions are not met, effective learning, especially in adulthood, may not take place.

Apart from focusing on transformative learning the theory also attends to what happens when intended learning become distorted or fails to happen (Illeris, 2015). Illeris’s (2015) focus on

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why learning fails or become distorted led him to change the terms used from his initial model (Illeris, 2003) to the following illustration:

Figure 4.4: The three dimensions of learning Source: Illeris (2015, p. 30)

As illustrated in Figure 4.4 the term for ‘cognitive’ changed to ‘content’, ‘emotional’ to ‘incentive and ‘environment’ to ‘interactive’ dimensions (Illeris, 2015, p. 35). The content dimension refers to any kind of the individual’s capacity and ability such as knowledge, skills, attitudes, understandings, beliefs, behaviour and competencies. The incentive dimension is the mobilization of mental energy to drive the learning process and includes the individual’s motivations, emotions and volition. The interaction dimension refers to the process of initiation and supply that takes place between the learner and the environment during the learning process.

Illeris (2015) maintains that all three dimensions of learning are involved in learning at different ages but influenced by the learner’s pre-conditions, dispositions and by the general society. The theory is characterized by its focus on the different learning contexts: home, school, community and work. It also attends to learning at the different stages of the lifespan: childhood, youth, adulthood and mature adulthood. In all the different contexts and life

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CONTENT INCENTIVE

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stages the learner’s content acquisition process is viewed as always being subjectively influenced by the value placed on the learning incentive in response to the supply and demand from the environment.

Therefore, the theory suggests that when learning is distorted or fails to happen there is mislearning, learning defence or learning resistance. According to Illeris (2015), mislearning is associated with the content dimension and relates to content being misunderstood as a result of the individual’s lack of concentration, non-recognition of prior learning or lack of clarity when communicating. Learning defence is associated with the incentive dimension and relates to the rejection or distortion of learning, resulting from a strategy adopted by the individual to deal with that particular situation (a defence mechanism). Learning resistance relates to the interaction dimension and is associated with the learner’s rejection of values, preferences and understanding not in line with what is held personally (ibid., p. 30).