Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework for the present study was informed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) and the Theory of Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977). Here, the Theory of Planned Behaviour was utilised to assess teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours, as well as factors that influence these attitudes. On the other hand, the Theory of Self- efficacy was used to understand the relationships among teachers’ efficacy beliefs related to teaching students with behavioural problems, their attitudes towards inclusion, and their knowledge of AD/HD.

According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985), attitudes are formed through a series of beliefs known as behavioural beliefs; these reflect an individual’s views about the outcomes and consequences of the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). If the outcomes and consequences are considered positive, desirable,

beneficial, and advantageous, then the attitude will be favourable; this will increase the likelihood of engaging in that behaviour. Generally, the more positive the attitude towards a certain type of behaviour, the greater an individual’s intention to carry out the behaviour in question (Ajzen, 1991). This implies that teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours are directly based on their beliefs about teaching these students in regular classrooms. If those beliefs primarily associate inclusion with favourable outcomes for these students, a teacher’s attitude is more likely to be positive; the opposite is true of beliefs that associate inclusion with unfavourable outcomes.

An attitude, once formed, is expected to predict and explain human

behaviour. Positive attitudes are presumed to bring about approach tendencies, while negative ones lead to the development of avoidance tendencies (Ajzen & Fishbein,

2000; Ajzen & Sexton, 1999). In an inclusive classroom, for example, a teacher’s tendency to engage in approach or avoidance behaviours can be interpreted as inclusionary or exclusionary behaviours, respectively. Teachers with a positive attitude towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours are more likely to exhibit inclusionary behaviours which foster a supportive learning

environment where all learners, including those with AD/HD-related behaviours, feel acknowledged, valued, included, and welcomed. In contrast, teachers with a negative attitude towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours are more likely to display exclusionary behaviours, creating a discriminating learning

environment in which some learners – including those with special needs – feel marginalized, devalued, excluded, and unwelcome.

The Theory of Planned Behaviour recognises the potential importance of the influence of background factors on individuals’ beliefs and attitudes. The theory argues that such factors (age, gender, ethnicity, education, etc.) categorise the population into several groups with very diverse life experiences. Consequently, people in different groups are likely to have diverse beliefs about a particular behaviour. The theory does not specify the types of background factors that should be taken into account in relation to a certain behaviour. Nevertheless, it does propose that if we consider the possibility that individuals who vary in terms of a factor might have been exposed to diverse experiences and formed different attitudes towards a particular behaviour as a result of this, that background factor should be considered. Support for this possibility can be found in previous research that points to the importance of certain types of background factors and their implications for behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). In the present study, a number of variables – teacher age, class size, training, years of teaching experience, prior experience with

children with AD/HD-related behaviours, and the subtype of AD/HD – were

considered to have the potential to influence teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours. Based on the previous research results discussed above, it is postulated that teachers who vary in terms of the

aforementioned variables may have been exposed to different experiences and thus exhibit contrasting attitudes towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours.

Individuals’ attitudes can also be influenced by their self-efficacy beliefs. According to Bandura’s (1977) Self-efficacy Theory, individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs affect their thought patterns and emotional reactions, as well as the choices they make (Bandura, 1982b). Highly efficacious people tend to approach difficult tasks with feelings of serenity. In contrast, people with low self-efficacy tend to think that situations are more difficult than they really are (Pajares, 1996), and therefore might choose to avoid such difficult situations (Bandura, 1994). Based on this, it can be expected that teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs related to their capacity to deal with and teach students with AD/HD-related behaviours will be more willing to accept such students in their regular classrooms. Conversely, teachers who doubt their ability to teach these students are more likely to believe that interactions with them are difficult and demanding; thus, these teachers may form negative attitudes towards the inclusion of such students.

The Theory of Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1977) has direct application to how teachers approach students’ behaviours. The theory proposes that individuals with high self-efficacy approach demanding tasks as challenges to be overcome, while less efficacious people perceive them as threats to be avoided (Bandura, 1994). On this theoretical basis, it is logical to assume that teachers who judge themselves

efficacious in instructing students with AD/HD-related behaviours tend to perceive the behaviours of these students as challenges to be addressed and therefore may form positive attitudes towards the inclusion of these students in their regular classrooms. On the other hand, teachers with low self-efficacy beliefs will likely see such behaviours as threats they want to avoid rather than confront; as a result, they might form negative attitudes towards the inclusion of such students. Thus, it appears that a teacher’s belief system is indeed an important factor in the successful inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours in regular classrooms, and that self- efficacy is an important element of this belief system.

As postulated in Bandura’s (1977) Theory of Self-efficacy, there are several sources that influence people’s perceived self-efficacy. Among these, self-efficacy perceptions are assumed to be more heavily influenced by mastery and vicarious experiences, respectively. Mastery experience is based on past personal successes in completing tasks. Such successes build people’s robust beliefs in their personal efficacy and help them to persevere in the face of obstacles. The second source of developing and increasing efficacy beliefs is through vicarious experience, which is based on witnessing others’ success. When individuals observe similar people successfully completing a task by sustained effort, they come to think that they also possess the ability to succeed in comparable tasks (Bandura, 1994). Based on this, it can be proposed that if teachers have experienced past success in including and teaching students with AD/HD-related behaviours in their classrooms, they are likely to exhibit high self-efficacy when it comes to teaching such students in inclusive settings. Moreover, if teachers have observed the successes of other teachers in teachings such students, they are likely to have high self-efficacy beliefs. In contrast, less efficacious teachers are expected to lack both prior success in teaching students

with AD/HD behaviours and experiences of witnessing others’ successes in teaching such students, thereby leading to more negative perceptions of inclusion.

Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about teaching children with AD/HD-related behaviours may also be affected by their knowledge about such children. The Theory of Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986) proposes that knowledge, competence, and different aspects of self-knowledge and self-belief act together to produce appropriate

explanations of action. Moreover, it suggests that self-efficacy is a mediator between knowledge and action. Therefore, whatever its amount, self-efficacy would not by itself lead to a competent behaviour being carried out if the requisite skills and knowledge are lacking (Pajares, 2002). Instead, “competent functioning requires harmony between self beliefs on the one hand and possessed skills and knowledge on the other” (Pajares, 1997, p. 3). Based on this theoretical perspective, it is assumed that when teachers have sufficient information about AD/HD and its associated behaviours, causes, and appropriate accommodations, they might have higher self- efficacy beliefs when it comes to teaching students with AD/HD-related behaviours than less knowledgeable teachers. Such highly efficacious teachers are more likely to believe that students with AD/HD-related behaviours belong in the regular

classroom; moreover, they will be better able to adapt their pedagogical strategies to meet these students’ needs.

In conclusion, this chapter has reviewed relevant research in relation to AD/HD, the development of inclusive education, teachers’ attitude towards the inclusion of students with AD/HD-related behaviours in mainstream classrooms, and teachers’ knowledge about AD/HD. This chapter has concluded with an examination of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) and the Theory of Self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977) as a conceptual framework to guide the present research study.

These theories provide particularly useful tools for understanding individuals’ belief systems; therefore, using the perspectives of these two theories represents a

justifiable approach given the topic of this study. Before describing the design and methods used to conduct the study in the next chapter, it should be noted that the results of the present study will be discussed under the umbrella of these theories in the final chapter, generating recommendations for further research as well as

professional development programmes that may enhance teachers’ understanding of, and interaction with, students with AD/HD-related behaviours in inclusive settings.