Conceptualisation of transformative learning

Although a number of scholars have provided frameworks to describe the transformative learning process (Cranton, 1994; Dirkx, 2006; Mezirow, 1997; Tolliver & Tisdell, 2006), perhaps the most prolific writer and thinker on the subject of transformation in adults is Jack Mezirow. Starting in 1978, he developed a structured theory of the transformational process of adult learning (Poutiatine, 2010). Given the prominence of Mezirow’s work, this research predominantly used Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning (Mezirow, 2008) as a lens to explore the phenomenon of transformative learning in senior leaders during their career transitions. With this in mind, specific attention is given in this section to Mezirow’s theory.

Figure 2.5: Mezirow’s transformative learning topology

Source: Adapted from Mezirow (1994) and Kitchenham (2008).

Mezirow’s theory (2008) holds that adults organise and interpret life’s experiences through sets of filters. These filters are called ‘meaning perspectives’ or ‘frames of reference’ and they refer to a person’s overall world view consisting of structures of cultural and psychological assumptions (Mezirow, 1985). These meaning perspectives or frames of reference comprise habits of mind and are expressed as subsequent points of view. Habits of mind involve how one categorises experience, beliefs, people, events and oneself. They may involve the structures, rules, criteria, codes, schemata, standards, values, personality traits and dispositions upon which our thoughts, feelings and actions are based (Mezirow, 2008). Specific perspectives are underpinned by meaning schemes, which are sets of assumptions governing particular situations (Brookfield, 2012).

Mezirow (2008) identifies a number of perspectives or habits of mind as summarised in Table 2.7 below. This classification of perspectives played a critical role in the development of the TTC framework, as will be revealed in Chapters 5 and 6.

Table 2.7: Examples of perspectives that people hold

Perspective Description

Sociolinguistic Language and how it is used in social settings, social norms, cultural expectations, the way language reflect these norms and expectations Moral-ethical Involving conscience, moral norms and values

Epistemic Knowledge and how we acquire knowledge

Philosophical World view, political view, religious doctrine

Psychological Self-concept, inhibitions, anxieties and fears, emotional response patterns; how people view themselves

Health View on approach to health; interpreting health problems

Political Informal, unofficial and sometimes behind-the-scenes efforts to sell ideas, influence an organisation, increase power or achieve other targeted objectives

Aesthetic Taste, attitude, standards, judgments about beauty and the insight and authenticity of aesthetic expressions, such as the sublime, the ugly, the tragic, the humorous, the drab

Source: Adapted from Mezirow (2008)

Mezirow distinguishes between a number of different learning mechanisms. When a person is faced with the need to learn, four options are possible:

i) Firstly, learning within meaning schemes involves people working with what they already know by expanding on, complementing, and revising their present domain of knowledge (Mezirow, 1997).

ii) Secondly, people could learn new meaning schemes that are compatible with existing schemes within their meaning perspectives (Mezirow, 1997).

iii) Thirdly, learning can take place through transformation of meaning schemes. This process requires “becoming aware of specific assumptions (schemata, criteria, rules, or repressions) on which a distorted or incomplete meaning scheme is based and, through a reorganization of meaning, transforming it” (Mezirow, 1985:23).

iv) Lastly, learning can take place through the transformation of meaning perspectives (Taylor, 1997).

Not all learning leads to a transformation. If a person encounters a problem or challenge that cannot be resolved through the first two learning mechanisms (via present meaning schemes or through learning new meaning schemes), the problem dictates that the assumptions and basis for sense making must be transformed. Transformation then occurs by critical self-reflection of the assumptions that supported the meaning scheme or perspective in use (Mezirow, 1997). In other words, for transformative learning to occur, the person needs to reflect critically on

the assumptions that support the meaning scheme or perspective in use and undergo scheme or perspective transformations to interpret new events in a different way (Kitchenham, 2008). The revision of meaning structures seems to be initiated by a disorienting dilemma followed by a series of learning strategies involving critical reflection exploration of different roles and options, and negotiation and renegotiation of relationships (Taylor, 1997). Significant learning occurs through “identifying problematic ideas, values, beliefs and feelings, critically examining the assumptions upon which they are based, testing their justification through rational discourse and making decisions predicated upon the resulting consensus” (Mezirow, 1995:58). Mezirow (1978) originally identified ten phases that a person typically experiences when undergoing transformation and later added an eleventh phase. These phases are depicted in Table 2.8. The additional eleventh phase is, for the sake of logical progression, inserted between the original phase 8 and 9. It should be noted that it is not necessary for a person either to experience all 11 phases or to experience it in a set order for transformation to occur (Kitchenham, 2008; Taylor, 1997).

Table 2.8: Mezirowʼs original ten phases of transformative learning plus an eleventh phase added later

Phase Experience

1 A disorienting dilemma

2 A self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame

3 A critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural or psychic assumptions 4 Recognition that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared

and that others have negotiated a similar change

5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships and actions 6 Planning of a course of action

7 Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans 8 Provisional trying of new roles

(11) Altering present relationships and forging new relationships

9 Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships 10 A reintegration into one’s life on the basis of conditions dictated by one’s

perspective

Source: Adapted from Mezirow (1978) and Kitchenham (2008)

Reflection forms a critical aspect of Mezirow’s transformation mechanism. Mezirow (1995) identifies three types of reflection: content reflection, process reflection and premise reflection. Content reflection entails thinking back to which action was taken in the past and how that could be used now to learn. Process reflection

considers the origins of action and factors related to the actions in order to learn.

Premise reflection considers the larger picture and questions the basis of current

assumptions. Content and process reflection may lead to the transformation of meaning schemes whereas premise reflection may lead to the more profound transformation of meaning perspectives (Mezirow, 1995). The latter is also similar to Argyris’ double-loop learning (Argyris, 1991). There are a number of methods recommended to fostering critical self-reflection and discourse, namely using critical incidents, life histories, journal writing, media analysis, repertory grids, metaphor analysis, conceptual mapping, action learning and collaborative learning (Mezirow, 1990). The three types of reflection were incorporated in the TTC framework as a mechanism to arrive at the core issues preventing successful transitions. This is elaborated on in Chapter 5.

While critical reflection is considered the cornerstone of successful transformation (Mezirow, 1995), other views (Taylor, 2001) hold that implicit memory or unconscious ways of knowing through emotions and feelings play important roles in transformative learning. Specifically “extra-rational and nonconscious ways of knowing” claim to play a role in revising meaning structures (Taylor, 2001:221). Neurobiological research reveals that habits, attitudes and preferences that are inaccessible to the conscious brain can be transformed via non-conscious activities and, by implication, that the process of transforming meaning perspectives should take transformation mechanisms into account (Taylor, 2001). Emotional literacy (Goleman, 1996) and awareness of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983) are cited as important contributors to non-reflective methods of transformative learning (Taylor, 2001). The importance for this research was to keep an open mind about which methods, techniques and approaches may be useful during a coaching intervention to facilitate transformative learning.

If a person undergoes transformational learning, a number of changes may be possible. These are more inclusive and integrative perspectives on life (Mezirow, 1995), an increase in personal power, spirituality, compassion for others, creativity and new connectedness with others (Taylor, 1997). Taylor specifically emphasises the importance of building connections and community via improved relationships as part of the transformative learning process. This notion has important implications for coaching to facilitate transformation since coaching in the business context often focuses on improving relationships (Peltier, 2010).

If transformative learning forms the basis of the TTC framework, and if the aim of the TTC framework is to support transitioning leaders by facilitating transformative

learning, it becomes important to understand how to measure the level of transformative learning. The next section discusses various approaches to evaluating transformative learning and highlights the approach employed in the TTC framework.