Concluding perspective

Section 7 put the estimated global cost of attaining an environmental outcome corresponding to 2.3 degrees centigrade of global warming at about 2 per cent of income under our formulas approach. One might wonder whether these estimated costs of mitigation are justified by estimates of the avoided costs of environmental damage.

Some economists attempt full cost-benefit analysis, to weigh economic costs of climate change mitigation against estimates of the monetized benefits of climate change mitigation, by means of integrated assessment models. Typical estimates of the monetized costs of a concentrations path corresponding to a 4 degree increase in year-2100 temperature (the BAU estimate), as compared to limiting the warming to 2 degrees,

are between 1 and 4 per cent of aggregate global income.¹⁸ This range, wide as it is, by no means spans the range of estimates by reputable economists.¹⁹ Furthermore, many impacts that might be associated with climate change have not yet been estimated. The debate on how to evaluate the impact of extreme events is wide open. Thus the mitigation scenarios studied here could be either far too mild or far too aggressive. The wide range of the damage estimates is one reason why we prefer to leave it to society to make the tradeoff between economic cost and environmental damage. Our focus is, rather, on how to design a framework under which cooperation is as sustainable as possible, for any given level of environmental ambition.

Some readers, especially those not familiar with the economic models of climate change policy, may be surprised at the high estimated economic costs for hitting what seem like moderate environmental goals. They should be assured that the cost estimates of the WITCH model allow for dynamic technology effects (hence “Induced Technical Change” in the name) and tend to lie in the middle of the pack of leading economic models (for example the 11 models compared in Clarke, et al, 2009).²⁰

But of course nobody can be sure that the estimates in these models are correct.

Uncertainty regarding economic costs of mitigation is probably not as large as uncertainty regarding the avoided costs of environmental damages. Nevertheless, economic costs may turn out to be either higher or lower than estimated in our model. In future research we plan to explore the implications of uncertainty in technology, economic growth, and the environment. A central attraction of putting the formula approach into effect would be that the parameters could readily be adjusted in future budget periods, as more information becomes available. If technological innovations occur that reduce the cost of hitting any given environmental goal, parameters and targets can then be changed accordingly. The success of the international climate regime is much less sensitive to the designer’s initial guess as to the appropriate endpoint than it is to whether the designer takes care not to impose unreasonable costs on any critical country, so that the agreement is comprehensive and credible.

18 At the lower end of this range, the 1% of income estimate comes from Tol (2002a,b).

He estimates the costs (monetized damages) of 4 degrees of global warming at

approximately 1 % of income if national costs are aggregated directly and 1 ½ % if they are aggregated by population under an equity argument, as compared to costs of 2 degrees warming equal to 0 or ½ % of income, respectively. (See also Tol, 2005.) At the higher end of this range, Nordhaus and Boyer (2000) estimate the costs of 4 degrees of global warming at approximately 4 % of income if national damages are aggregated directly and 5 % if they are aggregated by population, as compared to costs of 2 degrees at about 1 % of income aggregated by either method. (See also Nordhaus, 1994, 2008.)

19Mendelsohn et al (1998) estimate much lower damages from global warming, as they concentrate on agricultural impacts where adaptation would play a key role. Stern (2007, 2011) estimates much higher damages, attributable, in particular, to the assumption of a low discount rate which gives weight to estimated damages very far into the future

20Tavoni and Tol (2010) argue that the standard models may underestimate the economic costs of attaining the target of 2 degrees C.

References

Aldy, Joseph, Scott Barrett, and Robert Stavins, 2003, “Thirteen Plus One: A Comparison of Global Climate Architectures,” Climate Policy, 3, no. 4, 373-97.

--- and Jeffrey Frankel, 2004, “Designing a Regime of Emission Commitments for Developing Countries that is Cost-Effective and Equitable,” G20 Leaders and Climate Change, Council on Foreign Relations.

--- , Peter Orszag, and Joseph Stiglitz, 2001, "Climate Change: An Agenda for Global Collective Action." The Pew Center Workshop on the Timing of Climate Change Policies. October.

Baer, Paul, Tom Athanasiou, Sivan Kartha and Eric Kemp-Benedict, 2008, The Greenhouse Development Rights Framework: The Right to Development in a Climate Constrained World (Hendrich Boll Stiftung, Stockholm, 2^nd edition).

Barrett, Scott, 2006, “Climate Treaties and ‘Breakthrough’ Technologies,” American Economic Review, vol. 96, no. 2, May, 22-25.

Bierman, Frank, Philipp Pattberg, and Fariborz Zelli, 2010, editors, Global Climate Governance Beyond 2012: Architecture, Agency and Adaptation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK).

Bosetti, V., C. Carraro, M. Galeotti, E. Massetti and M. Tavoni, 2006, “WITCH: A World Induced Technical Change Hybrid Model.” The Energy Journal, pp. 13-38.

---, C. Carraro, A. Sgobbi, and M. Tavoni, 2009, “Modelling Economic Impacts of Alternative International Climate Policy Architectures: A Quantitative and Comparative Assessment of Architectures for Agreement,” in Joseph Aldy and Robert Stavins, eds., Post-Kyoto International Climate Policy. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press).

--- E. De Cian, A. Sgobbi, M. Tavoni, 2009b, "The 2008 WITCH Model: New Model Features and Baseline," Working paper no. 85 (Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei: Milan).

--- and J. Frankel, 2010, “Politically Feasible Emission Target Formulas to Attain 460 ppm CO2 Concentrations,” HKS RWP 11-016. Revised from “Global Climate Policy Architecture and Political Feasibility: Specific Formulas and Emission Targets to Attain 460PPM CO2

Concentrations," NBER WP 15516. HPICA Discussion Paper No.09-30. FEEM Working Paper 92, 2009. Euro-Mediterranean Centre for Climate Change Research Paper 73, 2009.

--- , E. Massetti and M. Tavoni, 2007, “The WITCH Model. Structure, Baseline, Solutions,”

FEEM Working Paper no. 10.

Cao, Jing, 2009, "Reconciling Human Development and Climate Protection: Perspectives from Developing Countries on Post-2012 International Climate Change Policy," in Post-Kyoto International Climate Policy, edited by Joe Aldy and Rob Stavins (Cambridge University Press:

Cambridge, UK).

Clarke, Leon, Jae Edmonds, Volker Krey, Richard Richels, Steven Rose, Massimo Tavoni, 2009,

“International climate policy architectures: Overview of the EMF 22 International Scenarios,”

Energy Economics 31, S64–S81. 

Edmonds, J.A., H.M. Pitcher, D. Barns, R. Baron, and M.A. Wise, 1992, “Modeling Future Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Second Generation Model,” iModeling Global Climate Change, Lawrence Klein and Fu-chen Lo, editors (United Nations University Press: Tokyo), pp. 295-340.

--- S.H. Kim, C.N.McCracken, R.D. Sands, and M.A. Wise, 1997, “Return to 1990: The Cost of Mitigating United States Carbon Emission in the Post-2000 Period,” October ( Pacific Northwest National Laboratory).

Ellerman, Denny, and Barbara Buchner, 2008, "Over-Allocation or Abatement? A Prelminary Analysis of the EU ETS Based on the 2005-06 Emissions Data," Environmental and Resource Economics 41, no. 2, October, pp. 267-287.

Frankel, Jeffrey, 1999, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” Policy Brief no.52, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC.

--- 2005, “You’re Getting Warmer: The Most Feasible Path for Addressing Global Climate Change Does Run Through Kyoto,” Trade and Environment: Theory and Policy in the Context of EU Enlargement and Transition Economies, J.Maxwell and R.Reuveny, eds.(Edward Elgar, UK).

--- 2007, “Formulas for Quantitative Emission Targets,” in Architectures for Agreement:

Addressing Global Climate Change in the Post Kyoto World, J.Aldy and R. Stavins, eds.

(Cambridge University Press).

--- , 2009, “An Elaborated Proposal For Global Climate Policy Architecture: Specific Formulas and Emission Targets for All Countries in All Decades,” in Post-Kyoto International Climate Policy, edited by Joe Aldy and Rob Stavins (Cambridge University Press). NBER WP 18476.

Hammett, James, 1999, “Evaluation Endpoints and Climate Policy: Atmospheric Stabilization, Benefit-Cost Analysis, and Near-Term Greenhouse Gas Emissions,”Climatic Change 41: 447-68.

Lutter, Randy, 2000, “Developing Countries’ Greenhouse Emissions: Uncertainty and Implications for Participation in the Kyoto Protocol,” Energy Journal 21(4): 93-120.

Manne, Alan, Robert Mendelsohn, Richard Richels, 1995, "MERGE: A Model for Evaluating Regional and Global Effects of GHG Reduction Policies," Energy Policy 23:17.

--- and Richard Richels, 1997, “On Stabilizing CO2 Concentrations – Cost-Effective Emission Reduction Strategies,” Stanford University and Electric Power Research Institute, April.

McKibbin, Warwick, and Peter Wilcoxen, 2007, “A Credible Foundation for Long Term International Cooperation on Climate Change,” in Architectures for Agreement: Addressing Global Climate Change in the Post-Kyoto World, edited by Joseph Aldy and Robert Stavins, (Cambridge University Press).

Mendelsohn, R.O., W.N. Morrison, M.E. Schlesinger and N.G. Andronova (1998), “Country-Specific Market Impacts of Climate Change,” Climatic Change, Vol.45, Nos.3-4.

Nordhaus, William D., 1994, Managing the Global Commons: The Economics of Climate Change (MIT Press: Cambridge).

--- 2006, “Life After Kyoto: Alternative Approaches Global Warming Policies,” American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, vol. 96, no. 2, May: 31-34.

--- 2008, A Question of Balance: Weighing the Options on Global Warming Policies (Yale University Press).

---. and J.G. Boyer, 2000, “Warming the World: the Economics of the Greenhouse Effect”, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Olmstead, Sheila, and Robert Stavins, 2006, “An International Policy Architecture for the Post-Kyoto Era,” American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, vol. 96, no. 2, May: 35-38.

Pizer, William, 2006, “The Evolution of a Global Climate Change Agreement,” American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, vol.96, no.2, May, 26-30.

Stern, Nicholas, 2007, The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

---, 2011, “Key Elements of a Global Deal on Climate Change,” London School of Economics.

Stewart, Richard, and Jonathan Weiner, 2003, Reconstructing Climate Policy: Beyond Kyoto (American Enterprise Institute Press, Washington DC).

Tavoni, Massimo, and Richard Tol, 2010, “Counting Only the Hits: The Risk of Underestimating the Costs of Stringent Climate Policies,” Climatic Change 100:769-778.

Tol, Richard S.J., 2002, “Estimates of the Damage Costs of Climate Change – Part I: Benchmark Estimates”, Environmental and Resource Economics, Vol. 21.

---., 2002a, “Estimates of the Damage Costs of Climate Change – Part II: Dynamic Estimates,”

Environmental and Resource Economics, Vol. 21.

---, 2005, “The Marginal Damage Costs of Carbon Dioxide Emissions: An Assessment of Uncertainties”, Energy Policy, No. 33.

Victor, David, 2004, Climate Change: Debating America’s Policy Options (Council on Foreign Relations, New York).

Wagner, Gernot, James Wang, Stanislas de Margerie and Daniel Dudek, 2008, “The CLEAR Path: How to Ensure that if Developing Nations Adopt Carbon Limits, Their Early Actions Will be Rewarded,” Environmental Defense Fund Working Paper, October 30.

Weyant, John, 2001, "Economic Models: How They Work & Why Their Results Differ." In Climate Change: Science, Strategies, & Solutions. Eileen Claussen, Vicki Arroyo Cochran, and Debra Davis, editors (Brill Academic Press, Leiden), pp. 193-208.

Wigley, Tom, Rich Richels and Jae Edmonds, 2007, “Overshoot Pathways to CO2 Stabilization in Multi-Gas Context,” in Human-induced climate change: An interdisciplinary assessment edited by RG Richels, AS Manne, and TML Wigley (Cambridge University Press), pp. 387-401.

Zhang, Yongsheng, 2008, “An Analytical Framework and Proposal to Succeed Kyoto Protocol: A Chinese Perspective,” Development Research Center of the State Council, China, Dec.

NOTE DI LAVORO DELLA FONDAZIONE ENI ENRICO MATTEI Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei Working Paper Series

Our Note di Lavoro are available on the Internet at the following addresses:

http://www.feem.it/getpage.aspx?id=73&sez=Publications&padre=20&tab=1

NOTE DI LAVORO PUBLISHED IN 2011

SD 1.2011 Anna Alberini, Will Gans and Daniel Velez-Lopez: Residential Consumption of Gas and Electricity in the U.S.:

The Role of Prices and Income

SD 2.2011 Alexander Golub, Daiju Narita and Matthias G.W. Schmidt: Uncertainty in Integrated Assessment Models of Climate Change: Alternative Analytical Approaches

SD 3.2010 Reyer Gerlagh and Nicole A. Mathys: Energy Abundance, Trade and Industry Location

SD 4.2010 Melania Michetti and Renato Nunes Rosa: Afforestation and Timber Management Compliance Strategies in Climate Policy. A Computable General Equilibrium Analysis

SD 5.2011 Hassan Benchekroun and Amrita Ray Chaudhuri: “The Voracity Effect” and Climate Change: The Impact of Clean Technologies

IM 6.2011 Sergio Mariotti, Marco Mutinelli, Marcella Nicolini and Lucia Piscitello: Productivity Spillovers from Foreign MNEs on Domestic Manufacturing Firms: Is Co-location Always a Plus?

GC 7.2011 Marco Percoco: The Fight Against Geography: Malaria and Economic Development in Italian Regions GC 8.2011 Bin Dong and Benno Torgler: Democracy, Property Rights, Income Equality, and Corruption GC 9.2011 Bin Dong and Benno Torgler: Corruption and Social Interaction: Evidence from China

SD 10.2011 Elisa Lanzi, Elena Verdolini and Ivan Haščič: Efficiency Improving Fossil Fuel Technologies for Electricity Generation: Data Selection and Trends

SD 11.2011 Stergios Athanassoglou: Efficient Random Assignment under a Combination of Ordinal and Cardinal Information on Preferences

SD 12.2011 Robin Cross, Andrew J. Plantinga and Robert N. Stavins: The Value of Terroir: Hedonic Estimation of Vineyard Sale Prices

SD 13.2011 Charles F. Mason and Andrew J. Plantinga: Contracting for Impure Public Goods: Carbon Offsets and Additionality

SD 14.2011 Alain Ayong Le Kama, Aude Pommeret and Fabien Prieur: Optimal Emission Policy under the Risk of Irreversible Pollution

SD 15.2011 Philippe Quirion, Julie Rozenberg, Olivier Sassi and Adrien Vogt-Schilb: How CO2 Capture and Storage Can Mitigate Carbon Leakage

SD 16.2011 Carlo Carraro and Emanuele Massetti: Energy and Climate Change in China

SD 17.2011 ZhongXiang Zhang: Effective Environmental Protection in the Context of Government Decentralization SD 18.2011 Stergios Athanassoglou and Anastasios Xepapadeas: Pollution Control with Uncertain Stock Dynamics:

When, and How, to be Precautious

SD 19.2011 Jūratė Jaraitė and Corrado Di Maria: Efficiency, Productivity and Environmental Policy: A Case Study of Power Generation in the EU

SD 20.2011 Giulio Cainelli, Massimiliano Mozzanti and Sandro Montresor: Environmental Innovations, Local Networks and Internationalization

SD 21.2011 Gérard Mondello: Hazardous Activities and Civil Strict Liability: The Regulator’s Dilemma SD 22.2011 Haiyan Xu and ZhongXiang Zhang: A Trend Deduction Model of Fluctuating Oil Prices

SD 23.2011 Athanasios Lapatinas, Anastasia Litina and Eftichios S. Sartzetakis: Corruption and Environmental Policy:

An Alternative Perspective

SD 24.2011 Emanuele Massetti: A Tale of Two Countries:Emissions Scenarios for China and India SD 25.2011 Xavier Pautrel: Abatement Technology and the Environment-Growth Nexus with Education

SD 26.2011 Dionysis Latinopoulos and Eftichios Sartzetakis: Optimal Exploitation of Groundwater and the Potential for a Tradable Permit System in Irrigated Agriculture

SD 27.2011 Benno Torgler and Marco Piatti. A Century of American Economic Review

SD 28.2011 Stergios Athanassoglou, Glenn Sheriff, Tobias Siegfried and Woonghee Tim Huh: Optimal Mechanisms for Heterogeneous Multi-cell Aquifers

SD 29.2011 Libo Wu, Jing Li and ZhongXiang Zhang: Inflationary Effect of Oil-Price Shocks in an Imperfect Market: A Partial Transmission Input-output Analysis

SD 30.2011 Junko Mochizuki and ZhongXiang Zhang: Environmental Security and its Implications for China’s Foreign Relations

SD 31.2011 Teng Fei, He Jiankun, Pan Xunzhang and Zhang Chi: How to Measure Carbon Equity: Carbon Gini Index

SD 33.2011 Nicola Doni and Giorgio Ricchiuti: Market Equilibrium in the Presence of Green Consumers and Responsible Firms: a Comparative Statics Analysis

SD 34.2011 Gérard Mondello: Civil Liability, Safety and Nuclear Parks: Is Concentrated Management Better?

SD 35.2011 Walid Marrouch and Amrita Ray Chaudhuri: International Environmental Agreements in the Presence of Adaptation

ERM 36.2011 Will Gans, Anna Alberini and Alberto Longo: Smart Meter Devices and The Effect of Feedback on Residential Electricity Consumption: Evidence from a Natural Experiment in Northern Ireland

ERM 37.2011 William K. Jaeger and Thorsten M. Egelkraut: Biofuel Economics in a Setting of Multiple Objectives &

Unintended Consequences

CCSD 38.2011 Kyriaki Remoundou, Fikret Adaman, Phoebe Koundouri and Paulo A.L.D. Nunes: Are Preferences for Environmental Quality Sensitive to Financial Funding Schemes? Evidence from a Marine Restoration Programme in the Black Sea

CCSD 39.2011 Andrea Ghermanti and Paulo A.L.D. Nunes: A Global Map of Costal Recreation Values: Results From a Spatially Explicit Based Meta-Analysis

CCSD 40.2011 Andries Richter, Anne Maria Eikeset, Daan van Soest, and Nils Chr. Stenseth: Towards the Optimal Management of the Northeast Arctic Cod Fishery

CCSD 41.2011 Florian M. Biermann: A Measure to Compare Matchings in Marriage Markets CCSD 42.2011 Timo Hiller: Alliance Formation and Coercion in Networks

CCSD 43.2011 Sunghoon Hong: Strategic Network Interdiction

CCSD 44.2011 Arnold Polanski and Emiliya A. Lazarova: Dynamic Multilateral Markets

CCSD 45.2011 Marco Mantovani, Georg Kirchsteiger, Ana Mauleon and Vincent Vannetelbosch: Myopic or Farsighted? An Experiment on Network Formation

CCSD 46.2011 Rémy Oddou: The Effect of Spillovers and Congestion on the Segregative Properties of Endogenous Jurisdiction Structure Formation

CCSD 47.2011 Emanuele Massetti and Elena Claire Ricci: Super-Grids and Concentrated Solar Power: A Scenario Analysis with the WITCH Model

ERM 48.2011 Matthias Kalkuhl, Ottmar Edenhofer and Kai Lessmann: Renewable Energy Subsidies: Second-Best Policy or Fatal Aberration for Mitigation?

CCSD 49.2011 ZhongXiang Zhang: Breaking the Impasse in International Climate Negotiations: A New Direction for Currently Flawed Negotiations and a Roadmap for China to 2050

CCSD 50.2011 Emanuele Massetti and Robert Mendelsohn: Estimating Ricardian Models With Panel Data CCSD 51.2011 Y. Hossein Farzin and Kelly A. Grogan: Socioeconomic Factors and Water Quality in California CCSD 52.2011 Dinko Dimitrov and Shao Chin Sung: Size Monotonicity and Stability of the Core in Hedonic Games

ES 53.2011 Giovanni Mastrobuoni and Paolo Pinotti: Migration Restrictions and Criminal Behavior: Evidence from a Natural Experiment

ERM 54.2011 Alessandro Cologni and Matteo Manera: On the Economic Determinants of Oil Production. Theoretical Analysis and Empirical Evidence for Small Exporting Countries

ERM 55.2011 Alessandro Cologni and Matteo Manera: Exogenous Oil Shocks, Fiscal Policy and Sector Reallocations in Oil Producing Countries

ERM 56.2011 Morgan Bazilian, Patrick Nussbaumer, Giorgio Gualberti, Erik Haites, Michael Levi, Judy Siegel, Daniel M.

Kammen and Joergen Fenhann: Informing the Financing of Universal Energy Access: An Assessment of Current Flows

CCSD 57.2011 Carlo Orecchia and Maria Elisabetta Tessitore: Economic Growth and the Environment with Clean and Dirty Consumption

ERM 58.2011 Wan-Jung Chou, Andrea Bigano, Alistair Hunt, Stephane La Branche, Anil Markandya and Roberta Pierfederici: Households’ WTP for the Reliability of Gas Supply

ES 59.2011 Maria Comune, Alireza Naghavi and Giovanni Prarolo: Intellectual Property Rights and South-North Formation of Global Innovation Networks

ES 60.2011 Alireza Naghavi and Chiara Strozzi: Intellectual Property Rights, Migration, and Diaspora

CCSD 61.2011 Massimo Tavoni, Shoibal Chakravarty and Robert Socolow: Safe vs. Fair: A Formidable Trade-off in Tackling Climate Change

CCSD 62.2011 Donatella Baiardi, Matteo Manera and Mario Menegatti: Consumption and Precautionary Saving: An Empirical Analysis under Both Financial and Environmental Risks

ERM 63.2011 Caterina Gennaioli and Massimo Tavoni: Clean or “Dirty” Energy: Evidence on a Renewable Energy Resource Curse

ES 64.2011 Angelo Antoci and Luca Zarri: Punish and Perish?

ES 65.2011 Anders Akerman, Anna Larsson and Alireza Naghavi: Autocracies and Development in a Global Economy: A Tale of Two Elites

CCSD 66.2011 Valentina Bosetti and Jeffrey Frankel: Sustainable Cooperation in Global Climate Policy: Specific Formulas and Emission Targets to Build on Copenhagen and Cancun