Design data collection methods
5.4 Concluding Remarks
Though this is a limited study on teachers’ attitudes towards and practices of
translanguaging in the classroom, it suggests that there are teachers who hold this practice to be important in English language acquisition. There exists a great gap in research
revolving around this practice in an English as a Second Language classroom; the results here show that there is a need for continued research. The use of translanguaging has been documented in an English as a Foreign Language context, but there is very little research done on its use in the ESL classroom. With the growing population of non-‐native speakers in schools throughout the US, it is imperative to consider the importance of students’ native
language as a resource available to students and prepare teachers to use that as they help their students gain proficiency in English.
As Garcia and Flores stated in their article, “…translanguaging, if properly
understood and suitably applied in schools, can in fact enhance cognitive, language, and literacy abilities” (Garcia & Flores, 2014, p.155). While translanguaging appears to be an extremely valuable practice, it needs to be examined why practices that are viewed as important are not being implemented in classrooms; in order to facilitate and explore this, there is a need for further research in the field so that English language learners may begin to benefit from what translanguaging has to offer them.
REFERENCES
Adamson, J. & Fujimoto-‐Adamson, N. (2012). Translanguaging in self-‐access language advising: Informing language policy. SiSAL Journal, 3(1), 59-‐73.
Ahmad, B.H. (2009). Teachers’ code-‐switching in classroom instructions for low English proficient learners. English Language Teaching, 2(2), 49-‐55.
Babbie, E. (1990). Survey research methods. Belmont: Wadsworth.
Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Brown, J.D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cenoz, J. & Gorter, D. (2011). A holistic approach to multilingual education: Introduction.
The Modern Language Journal, 95(3), 339-‐343.
Cenoz, J. & Gorter, D. (2013).Towards a plurilingual approach in English language teaching: Softening the boundaries between languages. TESOL Quarterly, 47 (3), 591-‐599. Cho, S. (2008). Korean immigrants’ social practice of heritage languae acquisition and
maintenance through technology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of
British Columbia.
Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian Modern Language
Review, 57 (3), p. 402-‐423.
Creese, A. & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching? The Modern Language Journal, 94 (1), 103-‐115.
Cresswell, J.W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
Cresswell, J.W. & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods
research. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49, 222-‐251.
Cummins, J. (2007). Rethinking monolingual instructional strategies in multilingual classrooms. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10 (2), 221-‐240.
Cummins, J. (2008). Teaching for transfer: Challenging the two solitudes assumption in bilingual education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2nd Edition, Volume 5,
65-‐75.
Cummins, J. (2009). Multilingualism in the English-‐language classroom: Pedagogical considerations. TESOL Quarterly, 43 (2), 317-‐321.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methodologies. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Egbert (2002). Impact of CALL instruction on classroom computer use: A foundation for rethinking technology in teacher education. Language Learning & Technology, 6 (3), 108-‐126.
García, O. & Flores, N. (2014). Multilingualism and common core state standards in the United States. In May, S. (2014). The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL,
and Bilingual Education (pp. 147-‐166). New York: Routledge.
García, O. & Li, W. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.
Gass, S.M. & Mackey, A. (2011). Data elicitation for second and foreign language research. New York: Routledge.
Greggio, S., & Gil, G. (2007). Teacher’s and learners’ use of code switching in the English as a foreign language classroom: a qualitative study. Linguagem & Ensino, 10(2), 371-‐ 393.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
Edward Arnold.
Hawkins, M. (Ed,). (2013). Framing languages and literacies: Socially situated views and
perspectives. New York, NY: Routledge.
Hornberger, N.H., & Link, H. Translanguaging in today’s classrooms: A biliteracy lens.
Theory into Practice, 51, p. 239-‐247.
Horst, M., White, J., & Bell, P. (2010). First and second language knowledge in the language classroom. International Journal of Bilingualism, 14(3), 331-‐349.
Johnson, K.E. (1992). Learning to teach: Instructional actions and decisions of preservice ESL teachers. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 507-‐535.
Li Wei. (2010). Moment analysis and translanguaging space: Discursive construction of identities by multilingual Chinese youth in Britain. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(3), 1222-‐1235.
Mackey, A. & Gass, S.M. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. New York: Routledge.
Martin, J.R. & White, P.R.R. (2005). The language of evaluation: Appraisal in English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Martin, P. (2005). Bilingual encounters in the classroom. In Dewaele, J.M. & Housen, A. (Eds.) Bilingualism: Beyond basic principles. p. 67-‐87. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
McMillan, B.A., & Rivers, D.J. (2011). The practice of policy: Teacher attitudes toward “English only”. System, 39, 251-‐263.
May, S. (Ed). (2014). The multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL, and Bilingual
Education. New York: Routledge.
Mohan, B. (1986). Language and content. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Mohan, B. (2007). Knowledge structures in social practices. In J. Cummins & C. Davidson (Eds.) The international handbook of English language teaching (pp. 303-‐316). New York, NY: Springer.
Mohan, B. A. (2011). Social practice and register. In E. Hinkel (Ed.) Handbook of research in second language learning and teaching, v. 2 (pp. 57-‐75). New York, NY: Routledge. Moore, P.J. (2013). An emergent perspective on the use of the first language in the English-‐
as-‐a-‐foreign-‐language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 97 (1), 239-‐253. Nayar, B. (1997). ESL/EFL dichotomy today: Language politics or pragmatics? TESOL
Quarterly, 31 (1), 9-‐37.
Norton, B. (2014). Identity, literacy, and the multilingual classroom. In May, S. (2014). The
multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL, and Bilingual Education (pp. 103-‐
122). New York: Routledge.
Orellana, M.F., Martínez, D.C., Lee, C.H., Montaño, E. (2012). Language as a tool in diverse forms of learning. Linguistics and Education, 23, p. 373-‐387.
Ortega, L. (2014) Ways forward for a bi/multilingual turn in SLA. In May, S. (2014). The
multilingual turn: Implications for SLA, TESOL, and Bilingual Education (pp. 32-‐53).
Qian, X., Tian, G., & Wang, Q. (2009). Codeswitching in the primary EFL classroom in China-‐ Two case studies. System, 37, p. 719-‐730.
Rea, L.M. & Parker, R. A. (2005). Designing & conducting survey research: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-‐Bass.
Reyes, M.L. (2012). Spontaneous biliteracy: Examining Latino students’ untapped potential.
Theory Into Practice, 51 (4), 248-‐255.
Richards, K., Ross, S., & Seedhouse, P. (2012). Research methods for applied language studies. New York: Routledge.
Rios-‐Aguilar, C., Gonzalez Canche, M.S., & Moll, L.C. (2012). Implementing Structured English Immersion in Arizona: Benefits, challenges, and opportunities. Teachers
College Record, 114, 1-‐18.
Spradley, J.P. (1980). Participant Observation. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehard and Winston. State Data Center of Iowa. (2013). Latinos in Iowa: 2013. Retrieved from
http://www.iowadatacenter.org/Publications/latinos2013.pdf
Tian, L., Macaro, E. (2012). Comparing the effect of teacher codeswitching with English-‐ only explanations on the vocabulary acquisition of Chinese university students.
Language Teaching Research, 16(3), p. 367-‐391.
White, G.. Hailemariam, C., & Ogbay, S. (2013). Towards the development of a plurilingual pedagogy: Making use of children’s informal learning practices. TESOL Quarterly, 47
(3), 638-‐ 643.
Williams, C. (2002). Extending bilingualism in the education system. Education and lifelong
learning committee ELL-‐06-‐02. Retrieved from
Appendix A: LETTER TO PRINCIPALS
Dear __________________________,
My name is Kavitha Nambisan and I am a Masters student in the Teaching English as a Second Language/ Applied Linguistics program at Iowa State University. I am currently conducting a study for my thesis on the topic of translanguaging use (a practice in which educators allow the mixing of languages in educational settings) in Iowa dual language programs and mainstream schools. The study aims to provide more information about translanguaging in an ESL context, as opposed to the EFL context in which it has been more frequently examined.
I would greatly appreciate the opportunity to gain insight of the attitudes held by teachers at your school towards the use of translanguaging in the classroom, and hope that you will be willing to send a short message containing the link to the survey to teachers at your school. If they agree to participate, their involvement would only be a 10-‐15 minute (or shorter) block of time.
If you have any questions about the study, please feel free to contact me via e-‐mail at [email protected] ; you can also reach Tammy Slater, my major professor who is overseeing my thesis project, at [email protected] . I greatly appreciate your consideration in this matter, and thank you for your time.
Sincerely,
Kavitha Nambisan
Appendix B: LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
Re: Requesting participation in short survey for teachers
My name is Kavitha Nambisan and I am a Masters student in the Teaching English as a Second Language/ Applied Linguistics program at Iowa State University. I am currently conducting a study for my thesis on the topic of translanguaging use (a practice in which educators allow the mixing of languages in educational settings) in Iowa dual language programs and mainstream schools. The study aims to provide more information about translanguaging in an ESL context, as opposed to the EFL context in which it has been more frequently examined.
This short survey should take between ten to fifteen minutes of your time, and does not request nor require any follow-‐up actions on your part. The responses will be
anonymous, and the data collected will be used to gauge teacher attitudes towards the use of translanguaging in schools. This survey does not intend to evaluate your performance as a teacher, nor your adherence to educational standards. As compensation for your time, you will have the option of entering into a drawing for one of three $25 Amazon gift cards. If you would like any more information about the survey prior to deciding whether or not to participate, please feel free to contact me via e-‐mail at [email protected] ; you can also reach Tammy Slater, my major professor who is overseeing my thesis project, at [email protected] . I greatly appreciate your consideration in this matter, and invite you to take the survey by clicking the link below. Thank you very much for your time and input. Thank you,
Kavitha Nambisan
Appendix C: SURVEY
The following images are screenshots of the online survey questions as they were displayed to participants. Each question was displayed on a separate page, and participants were unable to navigate backwards to view or edit previous questions. The double arrow button allowed participants to proceed from one page to the following one. The questions are displayed below in the order in which they were displayed on the survey.
Question 1 Question 2
Question 3 Question 4 Question 5
Question 6 Question 7 Question 8
Question 9
Question 10
Question 11
Question 12
Question 13
Question 14