Concluding thoughts

Adoption levels and usage behaviour of social media are still in a state of constant change (Universal McCann 2008; 2009; 2010). Within the travel and tourism context there is an adequate number of studies that attempt to reveal the role and impact of social media on consumer behaviour during the travel process. However, a number of scholars suggest that published research on the influence of social media and other Web 2.0 applications on tourism marketing has been very little (Schmallegger and Carson 2008), that research on the extent to which Travel 2.0 applications affect tourists’ attitudes and purchasing decisions “can be considered still poor and in its infancy” (Del Chiappa 2011, p.339), or even that “the significant impacts of social media on tourists’ decisions are not well documented (Liu et al. 2013, p.8).

Moreover, some of the existing studies have limitations related to the nature of the samples used such as consisting entirely from students, although there are issues with the use of students in

consumer behaviour studies (Peterson 2001, Ekström 2003), or involving hypothetical travel scenarios and not actual travellers (Beaulieu & Schreyer 1985, cited Um & Crompton 1990).

Moreover, almost all of the studies employ a micro approach, as they are either: (a) Application specific, that is focusing on a specific social media application (e.g. TripAdvisor, Facebook, etc.), or (b) Social media type specific, that is focusing on a specific type of social media (e.g.

blogs, social networking sites etc.). At the same time, most studies are either (c) decision making process stage specific (e.g. information search), or (d) travel planning stage specific (e.g. before travel). Despite the presence of numerous such micro approaches (as shown in this chapter), still the overall picture on the role and impact of social media (a) as a whole, (b) during all phases of the travel process, and (c) during all stages of the decision making process, through a macro exploratory approach, remains unclear.

2.6.1. On micro and macro approaches

The existence of micro and macro approaches, or orientations, is present in almost all social science disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and economics (Firat 1985). In consumer research in particular, there is no consensus on how the two approaches differ. Salomon et al.

(2006), in agreement with Pachauri (2002), associate the micro approach with a focus on the individual; while the macro approach with a social focus thus with the study of aggregate activities or processes occurring among larger groups of consumers such as a culture or a subculture. Dholakia (2012) rejects the individual – group distinction, and perceives the difference between micro and macro as a matter of distance from which the researcher observes a phenomenon, supporting that the micro approach examines phenomena from a close range. In other instances, the focus on aggregated activities and the longer range of the macro approach is associated with a system perspective (Firat 1985). In discussing a taxonomy of consumer behaviour models, Lilien and Kotler (1983 cited Bowen and Clarke 2009), differentiate the micro from the macro approach based on whether there is a focus on a part of the decision making process or on its whole. From another perspective, Sheth (1974) uses the term macro when the unit of study is the household as opposed to the individual members, while the term micro is used when the focus is on the interaction among the family members. Hoyer and MacInnis (2010) perceive the distinction as two alternative ways to study consumer behaviour.

They suggest that the micro approach focuses on the individual consumer’s psychological processes relating to acquisition, consumption and disposition related decision, while the macro focuses on groups and the symbolic nature of consumption (Hoyer and MacInnis 2010).

This study adopts Dholakia’s (2012), Firat’s (1985), and Lilien and Kotler’s (1983 cited Bowen and Clarke 2009) perspective. Therefore, the difference between the micro and the macro

approach is perceived as a matter of distance from which a researcher studies a phenomenon.

Studying from a closer distance, thus adopting a micro perspective, enables focus on smaller parts of the picture. However, this is not exclusively related with the study of individuals. For example, smaller parts can be not only individuals but also cognitive processes taking place within a specific stage of the decision making process, or interactions with other consumers within specific stages (e.g. pre-consumption) taking place through specific media types (e.g.

consumer review websites). On the contrary, studying from an adequate distance, thus adopting a macro perspective, enables the researcher to focus on the largest possible picture. It should be stressed again that this is not exclusively related with the study of groups. Larger parts can be systems, whole processes such as the entire decision making process as opposed to specific stages (e.g. information search), or the whole travel process as opposed to specific stages (e.g.

pre-travel), or social media as a whole as opposed to specific types or applications.

As stated in the previous section, almost all of the social media travel related studies employ a micro approach, being either application specific, or social media type specific, or decision making process stage specific, or travel planning stage specific. The adoption of the micro approach has three advantages. First, although the picture gained is from a narrow angle, it is more focused, thus providing an in-depth analysis of the phenomenon under investigation. For example, although it may be considered narrow to focus on only one social media type or social media application, or on only one stage of the decision making process, a study of the phenomenon has more depth since the researcher’s time, effort, and other resources are exclusively devoted on the particular type, or application, or stage. Second, the micro approach enables researchers to identify predictive and causal relationships. Due to the narrow focus of the investigation, the number of constructs and relationships is, or can be, limited to a manageable number, therefore it is feasible to adopt quantitative methodologies to identify predictive and causal relationships. Third, as a consequence of the previous two advantages, the micro approach focuses mostly on explanation with an aim to predict and control outcomes.

Despite the above mentioned advantages of such micro approaches, still the overall picture on the role and impact of social media (a) as a whole, (b) during all phases of the travel process, and (c) during all stages of the decision making process, through a macro exploratory approach, remains unclear. It seems therefore that there is a need of a comprehensive, exploratory study on the overall impact of social media focusing equally on each stage of the travel process, and attempting to cover all stages of the decision making process, so to provide input on the current state of use, role, and impact of social media during the whole travel process. In agreement with Dholakia (2012), it is believed that such an enlarged approach will provide a panoramic and holistic view that will enable the development of a conceptual framework on the overall use of

social media during each of the stages of the travel process, as well as during each of the stages of the decision making process. Such an outcome will enable researchers to further focus at micro level by identifying specific areas that are currently under-researched.

At the same time, this study recognizes that the current epistemic assumption in marketing and consumer research is based on micro approaches, and that there are “epistemic barriers” that

“shuns or sidesteps or devalues” macro level approaches to the extent that these are relegated to

“second-class citizenship” and “tolerated but not celebrated or rewarded” (Dholakia 2012, p.220). However, this study supports Dholakia’s (2012) argument that macro approaches are imperative since they offer panoramic and holistic views of consumption processes that enable the creation of approximate maps of linkages, influences and flows. Moreover, the study adopts Firat’s (1985) position that findings from macro perspectives not only facilitate the development of micro theories, but also provide answers to questions regarding assumptions and input variables that micro theories usually accept as given.