CONCLUSIONS
Sweep 4: Conclusions and policy implications
CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Main Content
3.1 Cause and Effect 3.2 Definition
3.3 Comparison and Contrast 4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment 7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 2, you learnt about the development of paragraphs using illustration and description. I hope you have started developing paragraphs in your academic studies, using this way of developing paragraphs. In this unit, paragraph development is extended further. You will learn how to develop paragraphs using cause and effect and definitions. Almost every academic field engages in writing that demands cause and effect as well as definitions. This stresses the importance of this unit to you.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
use cause and effect technique to develop paragraphs
analyse paragraphs containing cause and effect sentences
analyse paragraphs with definitions
apply the definition technique to the development of paragraphs
use comparison and contrast to develop paragraphs.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 Cause and Effect
Besides using illustration and description to develop the topic of your paragraph, you may in some cases need to use the technique of cause and effect.
We often have occasions in our lives to ask “Why did it happen?” or
“What will happen if ...?” and then try to find the cause and effect of an event. You may, for instance, want to know the cause of your poor grades, or of a bus accident, or the effect or consequence of taking drugs, deforestation, etc.
(a) Cause
Analysing the cause can be quite a complex task. For example, a daughter rebelling against her father and leaving home may have an apparent immediate cause, but there may also be a chain of causes going back into the past. Thus, there are likely to be many causes, not just one.
When you write, you can follow any of these patterns. You may discuss one or more casual connections between events. You may trace a chain of events in which A is the cause of B, which is the cause C, which causes D, and so on. The choice between one cause and several causes is often not a free option. Usually your topic will determine it.
When you work with several causes or reasons, you face the problem of arranging them in a significant order. If the reasons follow a logical pattern i.e., if the main event is caused by A, and A in turn by B, and B by C, the organization is predetermined. But sometimes, the reasons or causes may be parallel, all contributing to the same result. Then, a good strategy is to begin with the least important cause and conclude with the most important.
When developing a topic which is supported by reasons or causes, remember to:
(i) make it clear whether you are dealing with an immediate cause or an earlier cause, a direct cause or an indirect cause;
(ii) consider multiple causes;
(iii) account for all the links in the sequence of causes;
(iv) write about all the causes or reasons with details.
Example 1: Development of a Paragraph by Listing the Causes Hills and mountains are slowly worn away over thousands of years by the process of erosion. Erosion takes place everywhere on Earth. There are several forces of erosion: glaciers which carry rocks weighing thousands of tons; frost which causes small cracks on rock sides; strong winds which wear away exposed rocks in deserts. By far the greatest cause of erosion, however, is the action of water on rocks. Water carries chemicals dissolved in it that soften rocks. This softening is the first stage of erosion called weathering. Rainwater falling on hills runs onto
streams and rivers and these carry the weathered rock away. Millions of years in the future, your favourite hills will have been worn completely away by erosion.
(Adapted from Geography by Dougal Dixon, Franklin Watts Science World)
Glossary
worn away: caused to disappear.
erosion: the action of wearing away.
glaciers: masses of ice which move very slowly down on mountain valley.
frost: a white powdery substance formed on outside surfaces from very small drops of water when the temperature of air is below freezing point.
Analysis of the Paragraph
(i) Topic sentence: “Hills and mountains are slowly worn away over thousands of years by the process of erosion.”
(ii) (a) Causes of Erosion:
glaciers frost
strong winds.
(b) Process of erosion by water.
(iii) Summing up: In a million years, even your favourite hills will be worn away by erosion.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1
You have just read an analysis a paragraph which lists the causes of erosion. It follows a sequence where the less important causes are mentioned first, followed by the most important cause. Now, think of your own life. For instance, what were the reasons which led you to join the Open University. Jot down your reasons.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
Read example 1 again and answer the following questions:
1. What are the various forces of erosion?
2. Fill in the gaps:
Water softens rocks because it carries certain ...(i) ... This softening is called (ii) ...
(iii) ... falls on hills and runs into ...(iv) ...
and (v) ..., which carry the (vi) ... Rock away.
(b) Effects
Effects or consequences can be handled in the same way as reasons or causes. But now the main idea is regarded as causing the consequences discussed in the rest of the paragraph. The paragraph may deal with only a single effect or refer to several effects. If several consequences are listed one must be careful to distinguish between the major and the minor ones.
Example 2: Developing a Paragraph by Listing Effects
An earthquake strikes without warning. When it does, its power is immense. If it strikes a modern city, the damage it causes is as great as if it has struck a primitive village. Gas mains burst, explosions are caused and fires are started. Underground railways are wrecked. Whole buildings collapse. Dams burst. Bridges fall. Gaping crevices appear in busy streets. If the quake strikes at sea, huge tidal waves sweep inland.
If it strikes in mountain regions, avalanches roar down into the valleys.
Consider the terrifying statistics from the past. In the year 1755: Lisbon, capital of Portugal – the city destroyed entirely and 450 killed; 1970:
Peru – 50,000 killed.
(From “Can We Stop Earthquakes”? in World of Wonder) Glossary
warning: the act of giving earlier information of danger.
immense: very great.
gas mains: pipes bringing gas from the source of supply to the houses and buildings.
graping crevices: wide opening or cracks.
tidal waves: very large ocean waves.
avalanches: large masses of snow and ice, sliding down a mountain side.
terrifying: filling with terror.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3
In earlier sections, we analysed some of the paragraphs for you. The following exercise will help you understand the organization of the paragraph above.
Cause: The power of ... (i) ...
Main Effect: The great ...(ii) ...
Details of the Effect:
On Land At Sea In Mountain
Region (i) Gas mains burst
(ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii)
Summing up: Reinforce the idea of the damage caused by an earthquake by quoting statistics from the past and the present.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4
In Exercise 1, you noted the reasons for joining the Open University.
Now write down what you think will be the results or consequences of your joining this programme.
(b) Cause and Effect
We have discussed a paragraph which gives reasons to support a topic, and a paragraph which deals with effects. Often, however, cause and effect are more closely related, forming a chain where A gives rise to B, B to C and so on. In such a link, B is both a consequence of A and the cause of C. The paragraph below illustrates such a chain.
Example 3: Paragraph Developed by Stating Cause and Effect Without sunlight, there can be no form of life as we know it and all man’s basic needs can be ultimately traced back to the sun. In the first place, by its light and warmth, the sun directly provides man with water, for the heat of the sun causes the damp air over the seas to rise and form clouds which cool at a high altitude and consequently fall as rain. One result of rainfall is the formation of lakes and rivers from which man takes his water supply and which can be used for hydroelectric power.
At the same time, rain together with sunlight, enables plants to grow, and plants provide food for man and also for animals which are themselves another source of food for man.
(From Anita Debska: Upgrade your English, Oxford University Press.)
Glossary
ultimately: in the end.
survival: the fact of continuing to live.
high altitude: great height.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5
In example 3, the paragraph has been developed by stating the cause and effect. By filling in the gaps below, you will be able to understand the organization of the paragraph.
Main Cause: the sun.
Main Effect: Man’s ...
(i) ...
Indirect Effect : rainfall ii………... : rainfall
Effect: formation of ...iii... and ...iv ...
Cause: lakes and rivers ...v... :water and ... vi ...Cause:
rain+ ... vii ...Effect: plants...viii ... ix: ...x ...Effect:...xi………...
for man and
...xii...
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6
You have already noted the reasons for your joining the Open University and the effect it will have on your future career. Now write a paragraph of about 150 words combining both the reasons and the consequences of joining the Open University.
You may find some of the following words/phrases useful in developing your paragraph:
because (of) resulting in
since leading to
on account of causing
thanks to consequently
with the result that
3.2 Definition
Often when we write, we need to explain what something is or means, especially if we feel that our readers may not be familiar with it. This generally happens when we use technical terms or when we want to give our own meaning to an ordinary word.
The simplest way to define a term is by giving a synonym or by placing the word in a general class and then distinguishing it from others in that class. For example:
Term Class Differentiation
Nurse a woman or man helps takes care of the sick.
Surgeon a doctor who performs medical
operations.
Such definitions are rather formal in style and are generally found in dictionaries.
Some concepts or ideas cannot be defined in such a manner, and for this purpose extended definitions are useful. Topic sentences which relate to abstract concepts such as ‘freedom’, ‘democracy,’ etc. need the support of specific examples. In fact, both in our thinking and writing, we often require extended definitions. This is done by adding details like uses, component parts, examples, being similar to something else, being different from something else, and stating what it is not.
Sometimes, a definition is used in the midst of other forms of writing, and sometimes, the definition itself becomes the focus of a piece of writing.
Example 4: Paragraph Developed by Definition
A map is a representation of an area of land, sea, or sky. Maps have been used since the earliest civilizations, and explorers find that they are used in rather primitive societies at the present time by people who are accustomed to travelling. For example, Arctic explorers have obtained considerable help from maps of the coast lines showing settlements drawn by Eskimo people. Occasionally, maps show not only the roads, but pictures of other features. One of the earliest such maps dates from about 1400 B.C. It shows not only roads, but also lakes with fish, and a
similar to the modern maps of a state which show for each large town, some features of interest or the chief products of that town.
C. C. Wylie Glossary
representation: a picture.
civilization: stage of human social development.
accustomed to: use to.
explorer: one who travels in unknown lands for the purpose of discovery.
Analysis of the Paragraph
Definitions: ‘A map is a representation of an area of land, sea or sky.’
Generalization: ‘Maps have been used ...Who are accustomed to travelling.’
Example: Arctic explorers.
Generalization: Occasionally, maps show not only the roads, but pictures of other features.
Example: Maps of both ancient and modern times.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7
Use the sentences given below to write a paragraph on Mammals. The paragraph should be arranged in the following order:
(i) Definition
(ii) Generalisation by differentiation (iii) Example (2 examples)
(iv) Generalisation.
You may make any changes in the language and introduce any connectives you feel are required to write a smoothly flowing passage.
You will need, for example, to replace some of the nouns with pronouns and avoid unnecessary repetitions.
(i) Mammals differ from the other vertebrates in their system of reproduction.
(ii) The young mammals are protected with the mother’s body.
(iii) After birth, the young mammals are nourished with milk secreted by the milk glands of the mother.
(iv) A mammal is a warm-blooded vertebrate that has four limbs and a hairy skin.
(v) Mammals are an extremely varied group, ranging in size from the largest mammal, the blue whale which is 150 tons, to shrews which weigh only a few grams.
Glossary
vertebrates (n): animals which have a backbone.
secreted: produced.
varied: of different kinds.
shrew: a very small mouse-like animal with a long pointed nose.
When we define an object or a concept, we often need to describe its characteristics. For instance, look at some of the sentences in exercise 7.
A mammal is a warm-blooded vertebrate that has four limbs and a hairy skin ... the blue whale which is 150 tones ...
Relative clauses in the examples given, behave like adjectives because they qualify nouns: vertebrate and whale.
Relative clauses are of two types: defining and non-defining according to their function in the sentences in which they occur. Here, we shall discuss the defining relative clauses. They are called defining relative clauses because they define or specify the noun which they qualify.
They form an essential part of a sentence, as it remains logically incomplete if this additional information is not provided. A defining relative clause is never separated from the noun it qualifies by the use of commas.
A defining relative clause begins with a relative pronoun: that, which, who, whom, whose. That may refer to persons or things., which is used only for things, and who for persons. The possessive and objective forms of who are whose and whom. Whom and which may be preceded by a preposition: about whom, of which.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8
Complete the definitions below with appropriate relative pronouns:
1. Biology is a Science ...studies living beings.
2. Darwin was the person ...wrote The origin of Species.
3. Mammals are a class of animals ...young are fed on the mother’s milk.
4. An animal ... has a large brain is called an anthropoid.
5. The house into ...I went belongs to a friend of mine.
3.3 Comparison and Contrast
So far, we have been discussing ways of developing paragraphs which deal with only one topic. Sometimes a topic can be developed by showing how two things are alike or how they are different. In fact, comparison and contrast are common devices in writing mainly because we tend to think that way. Our decisions are often based on comparison and contrast. For instance, comparison and contrast dominate our thoughts when we decide to join a particular college or university, when we choose a career or a job, and even when we buy a particular brand of tooth paste. We often compare our teachers, our neighbours, the cities we have been to, the food served at different restaurants, and so on.
Hence, comparison and contrast are a continuous process in our lives.
We generally compare or contrast two items for three basic purposes:
(i) We wish to point out distinctions in order to give information about two things.
(ii) We wish to clarify the unfamiliar by comparing it with the familiar.
(iii) We wish to show the superiority of one thing over another when we compare two cars, for example.
There are two ways of arranging information when comparing or contrasting things. One is to write down all the main points about one of the things to be compared or contrasted and then to take all the main points about the other.
Person/thing 1 Point 1
Point 2 Point 3
Person/thing 2 Point 1
Point 2 Point 3
The other way is to take each point in turn and to compare the two things in respect of each point like this:
Person/thing 1 Person/thing 2
Point 1 Point 1
Point 2 Point 2
Point 3 Point 3
Example 5: Paragraph Developed by Comparison
The existence of a hierarchy helps to assure order and discipline, and these things are important among monkeys just as they are among humans. They permit, first the making of quick decisions. Whenever people are brought together, they will only be able to reach decisions quickly if some kind of hierarchy is established. Every jury needs its foreman; every cricket team needs a captain. The same is true of monkeys, some animals in the group have to decide when the group shall move, which direction it shall follow and what action it shall take to avoid predators. Some form of leadership is essential if action is to be taken quickly, and hierarchy has come into existence to avoid continual infighting which could be the consequence of total equality.
(Adapted from The Primates by Eimerl. S. and De Vors, I. Time-Life Series)
Glossary
hierarchy (n): the organization of a system into higher and lower rank.
foreman: the leader of the 12 people (jury) appointed to decide whether a person on trial is guilty or not.
predators: animals that live by killing and eating other animals.
infighting: fighting or disagreement within the group.
Analysis of the Paragraph
Topic sentence: ‘The existence of hierarchy helps to assure order and discipline, and these things are important among monkeys just as they are among humans.’
Comparison
Subject 1: People.
Subject 2: Monkeys.
Summing up: ‘Some form of leadership is essential .... consequence of total quality.’
Reading Comprehension
The paragraph given above is organized by first discussing one subject and then comparing it with another. Let’s try and understand the paragraph better.
Fill in the gaps.
(a) Having a hierarchy is essential for both men and monkeys because
(b) It is particularly important for man because
(c) Give three reasons why it is particularly important for monkeys to have a form of hierarchy.
(i) (ii) (iii)
(d) The writers of this paragraph:
(i) believes in dictatorship;
(ii) are being practical;
(iii) do not believe in equality.
(Tick the correct answer).
Example 6: Developing a Paragraph by Contrast
We live on the planet Earth, a ball of rock 12,750km in diameter. Like all the planets, the Earth rotates on its axis and orbits the sun. But the Earth is not alone. It has a companion on its travels – the moon which orbits the Earth once a month. But the two worlds are very different. The
Moon is a dead planet. It has no volcanoes or geological activity, it is airless, waterless and lifeless. The Earth, on the other hand, is lush and fertile. It supports million of living things – planets, insects, birds, animals and human beings. It has fascinating erupting volcanoes. Since the moon has no atmosphere to protect it, its surface is heated to 105oC during its day, and cools to 155oC at night. In contrast, the Earth is covered by an atmosphere which we can breathe, and which also keeps the temperature quite constant.
Glossary
rotates: turns round a fixed point.
axis: an imaginary line around which a spinning body moves.
orbits: goes round.
volcanoes: mountains with large opening at the top through which melting rock, steam, gases, etc., escape from time to time with great force from inside the Earth.
geological activity: activity which relates to the physical changes in the structure of the Earth, especially relating to rock, soil, etc.
lush: thickly and healthily growing (especially plants).
erupting: exploding and pouring out fire.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 9
Unlike example 5, the paragraph in example 6 has been organized by talking about the Earth and contrasting it with the moon. This exercise is to help you analyse the paragraph.
Analysis of the Paragraph:
1. What is the topic sentence?
2. Fill in the gaps in the following table to show the contrast between the Moon and the Earth.
The Moon The Earth
(i) ...
(ii) ………..
(iii) ………..
(iv) ………..
(v) very hot during the day, very cold during the night
(i) lush and fertile (ii) has volcanoes
(iii) ………
(iv) has atmosphere
(v) ……….
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 10