The present study investigated the possibility of using computational methods for loanword detection. Several model architectures and configurations were trained and tested to arrive at the best model. The final model incorporated phonotactic, lexical, and semantic distributional features and used an SVM binary classifier to predict if a word was borrowed. The model achieved state-of-the-art results on the evaluation test, surpassing the results of previous similar models (Mi et al.
2016, Mi et al. 2018, Fenogenova et al. 2016, Tsvetkov et al. 2015).
Moreover, the detection model has performed exceptionally well in a real-life setting. When applied to existing Russian Web corpora, the model allowed to compile an extended corpus of recent Russian borrowings from English. In addition to the identified loanwords, the corpus contains their predicted English donor words, morphological features and part-of-speech tags, and sentences in which they occur. The importance of the corpus is emphasized by the morphological analysis of the identified loanwords described in Section 4. A frequency study of oblique noun forms focused on the indeclinability of borrowed nouns and showed positive correlation between the frequencies of noun lemmas and their oblique forms, suggesting that there is no growing trend of indeclinability among novel Russian loanwords. In addition, a subset of the corpus was used to analyze stem-final consonant mutations in borrowed verbs. The analysis confirmed the previously attested underapplication of expected mutations but found no correlation between the frequency of the verbs and the frequency of verb forms containing expected mutations. The corpus is released with the hope to further research of loanwords and language constraints.
At the same time, the detection model has certain limitations. For example, it is too sensitive to hyphenated words and ended up mis-classifying a large number of native abbreviated or
hard-41
hyphenated words. In the future, the compiled loanword corpus can be used to further improve the accuracy of the detection model.
The construction of the corpus also has certain challenges. In particular, the initial corpus aggregated from model predictions was too noisy partly due to the model errors, but mostly due to the errors in the lemmatization and part-of-speech tagging. The lemmatization and part-of-speech tagging errors are interconnected in that an incorrect tag will lead to an application of incorrect lemmatization rules. While previous studies resorted to reducing the noise of the compiled corpora through manual revision (Fenogenova et al. 2016, Muravyev et al. 2014), the goal of this study was to apply strictly computational methods. Thus, instead of revising the corpus by hand, an intersection of two lemmatization models and two tagging models was used to reduce the number of errors. More research is needed to improve existing morphological analyzers, which will help increase the accuracy of the detection model.
42
Appendix: Novel Russian Loanwords with Predicted Donor Words
ab'juzerstvo 'abuser' ab'juzerša 'abuser' ab'juzivna 'abusive' ab'juzit' 'abuse' averzivnyj 'aversive' avtofikšn 'auto fiction' aggregirovat' 'aggregate' agonizirovat' 'agonize' agregatirovat' 'aggregate' adaptive 'adaptive' advansment 'advancement' advantejdž 'advantage' adventivnyj 'adventive' adventura 'adventure' adventurizm 'adventurism' advenčers 'adventures' advenčurer 'adventurer'
advert 'advert'
advizor 'advisor'
advizori 'advisory' advokejt 'advocate' adderal 'Adderall' adderollovyj 'Adderall'
adopter 'adopter'
akvizišn 'acquisition' akkaunting 'accounting' akkaunts 'accounts' akkolejd 'accolade' akkomplišed 'accomplished' aksident 'accident' alinkljuziv 'all inclusive'
alièkspressovskij 'AliExpress' anderkaver 'undercover' anderkarta 'undercard' anderkloking 'underclocking'
animal 'animal' atributirovat' 'attributing'
audišen 'audition'
autlajner 'outliner' autsortingovyj 'out sorting' affiliejtka 'affiliate' ačivit' 'achieve' baghantit' 'bug hunt'
bajbek 'buyback'
bajkfrendli 'bike friendly' balansit' 'balance'
bampit' 'bump'
bampovat' 'bump'
barbekjuit' 'barbecue' batterskotč 'butterscotch' bezakkauntnyj 'account'
43 blokirovat'sja 'blocking'
blokovyj 'block'
bljutusnyj 'Bluetooth' bolderingovyj 'bouldering'
bonusit' 'bonus'
brauzit' 'browse' brejkanut' 'break' brejkdaunut' 'breakdown'
brendik 'brand'
brendonutyj 'brand' bridernyj 'breeder' bridževyj 'bridge'
broud 'broad'
brutforsit' 'brutе force'
brèjn 'brain'
brèndirovat' 'brand'
bukat' 'book'
bukmarkat' 'bookmark' bulšitit' 'bullshit'
bègmèn 'bagman'
bèkspejsnut' 'backspace' bèttari 'battery'
vegetarianit' 'vegetarian' vesternizirovat' 'westernize'
viktimblejmit' 'victim blaming' viktimizirovat' 'victimize' viralit' 'viral' virtualizirovat' 'virtualize'
višer 'wisher'
vrekerit' 'wrecker'
vudik 'woody'
vèjd 'wade'
gazlajt 'gaslight' gazlajtit' 'gaslight'
gendersvičnut' 'gender switch' geokodirovat' 'geocode' geotarget 'geo target'
gljuten 'gluten'
gould 'gold'
grejlistit' 'gray list'
grejp 'grape'
grejsovyj 'grace' grindit' 'grind'
grinman 'green man'
gugljatka 'google'
darkglass 'dark glass' daunskejlit' 'downscale'
devajsez 'devices'
dedakšen 'deduction' dedlajnit' 'deadline' dednejmit' 'dead name' dezjorvz 'deserves'
44 dekriptovat' 'decrypt'
deplatformit' 'deplatform' deskremblirovat' 'descramble' deskripšen 'description' despavnit'sja 'despawn' destinejšen 'destination' destoršn 'distortion'
džejlbrejker 'jailbreaker' dženerejšnz 'generations'
dženerik 'generic'
džentrificirovat' 'gentrify'
džimit' 'gym'
džinglbellit' 'jingle bell'
džogger 'jogger'
džoit' 'joy'
džojnit' 'join' džornèlizm 'journalism' džuniper 'juniper'
diskaverabiliti 'discoverability' diskavri 'discovery'
dumskrollar 'doom scroller' dèdlajn 'deadline' iksterminèjt' 'exterminate'
impress 'impress'
impressiv 'impressive'
impruv 'improve'
inbridirovat' 'inbreed' invajtit' 'invite' inversnut'sja 'inverse' invojsing 'invoicing' kamingautnut’sya ‘coming out’
kampervan 'campervan' kansellit' 'cancel' karpenter 'carpenter' karpentri 'carpentry' karšaring 'carsharing' kastodial'nyj 'custodial'
kastomnyj ‘custom’ kinkšejmit' 'kink shame' kitčit' 'kitchen'
klejm 'claim'
klikabel'nyj 'clickable' klikat' 'click' klikbejtit' 'clickbait'
45 klikingovyj 'clicking'
kliknut' 'click'
klinikal 'clinical'
klènki 'clanky'
klèriti 'clarity' koasternyj 'coaster' kovergentnyj 'convergent' kollajd 'collide' kollajding 'colliding' kollautit' 'callout'
kollbek 'callback'
kollektabls 'collectables' kolonizejšn 'colonization' kommentit' 'comment'
komments 'comments'
kommjoršial 'commercial'
kommitit' 'commit'
komm'jutit' 'commute' kompetišin 'competition' komfortit' 'comfort'
kongratilèjšns 'congratulations' konnekšen 'connection' konsolidejtid 'consolidated' konsolidejšn 'consolidation' konstrakšn 'construction' konfljuentnyj 'confluent' konformer 'conformer' konf'juzing 'confusing' konf'juzit' 'confuse' kopipastat' 'copy paste' koučingovyj 'coaching'
krauder 'crowder'
krauding 'crowding'
kraudfajnit' 'crowd fine' kraudfandingovyj 'crowdfunding' kraudfandit' 'crowdfund' kraudfunding 'crowdfunding' kraftit' 'craft' lavless 'loveless'
lavsong 'love song'
lavstori 'love store' lavhejt 'love hate' lavčajld 'love child'
lajaut 'layout'
lajkanut' 'like' lajknut' 'like' lajmlajt 'limelight' lajnvork 'line work'
lajfa 'life' loukosternyj 'low-cost'
louless 'lawless' mastermind 'mastermind' mafflit' 'muffle' medikejšnyj 'medication'
mejlovyj 'male'
mejnsplejnit' 'mansplain' mensplejnit' 'mansplain' menspreder 'manspreading' menspredit'sja 'manspreading' mentalizirovat' 'mentalizing'
menšenz 'mentions'
milkovyj 'milk'
mirroring 'mirroring' misbihejv 'misbehave' misgendering 'misgendering' misgenderit' 'misgender' misdirekšn 'misdirection'
46
modellit' 'model'
moderniti 'modernity'
mortar 'mortar'
muvat' 'move’
mèjnstriming 'mainstreaming' mèjntejner 'maintainer'
nekless 'neckless'
njord 'nerd' notifikejšen 'notification'
nèjked 'naked' oversempling 'oversampling' overtonit' 'overtone' overšèrit' 'overshare' okkljudirovat' 'occlude' okkljuzionnyj 'occlusion'
olmoust 'almost'
openkèjs 'open case' opensurs 'open source' operejšn 'operation' patibrejker 'party breaker' patčit' 'patch'
persistirovat' 'persist' persistit' 'persist' pikapnut' 'pick-up'
pikat' 'pick'
pinakl 'pinnacle' pirsingovat' 'piercing' plejgraundovskij 'playground' plejgraundskij 'playground' plejgruppa 'playgroup' plejlandija 'playland' plejlend 'playland' plejstejšnskij 'PlayStation' plejtestit' 'playtest' popkornbuk 'popcorn book' porkupajn 'porcupine' portabl 'portable' prajmirovat' 'prime'
prajml 'primal'
prajoriti 'priority' predikt 'predict' predikšn 'prediction' prezentejšn 'presentation'
prejz 'praise'
preskul 'preschool' prodakšnz 'productions'
47 prononsièjšn 'pronunciation'
prospamit' 'spam'
pèčvorking 'patchworking'
rajval 'rival' rebutovat'sja 'reboot'
revamp 'revamp'
reversit' 'reverse' revižen 'revision' revižn 'revision'
redakšn 'reduction'
redevelopment 'redevelopment' redraft 'redraft'
rejtit' 'rate' rekognajz 'recognize' rekonstrakšen 'reconstruction' rekrutit' 'recruit'
reprezentativit' 'representative' resellit' 'resell'
resiv 'receive'
respavn 'respawn'
respavnit' 'respawn' respektivnyj 'respective'
restrimit' 'restream' retardnut'sja 'retard' retvitit' 'retweet' retriv 'retriever' retrovejv 'retro wave' refajneri 'refinery' sabskrajber 'subscriber' sajdkvest 'side quest' sajting 'sighting'
sajtnyj 'sight'
48 sekondari 'secondary'
sekondli 'secondly' sekstit' 'sext' seksualizirovat' 'sexualize' sekuljarnyj 'secular' sek'juritizirovat' 'securitize' sellaut 'sellout' selfisnut'sja 'selfies' selfharmlit'sja 'self-harm'
sender 'sender' skoringovyj 'scoring' skrapbukovyj 'scrapbook' skrapmanija 'scrap' skremblirovat' 'scramble' skribl 'scribble' skrinit' 'screen' skrinšotit’ 'screenshot' skrinšotočnyj 'screenshot' skrollit' 'scroll' smartfonit'sja 'smartphone' smartfonnyj 'smartphone'
smètčit' 'match'
snejp 'snape'
snorkelit'sja 'snorkel'
snup 'snoop'
spavnkil 'spawn kill' spajnbrejker 'spine breaker'
sparkat' 'spark'
sparsit' 'parse' spešilti 'specialty' spešièlti 'specialty' spojlerit' 'spoiler'
spènk 'spank'
stakat' 'stack' starri 'starry' stejdždajving 'stage diving' stendaper 'stand-up' stenit' 'stan' stils'jut 'stealth'
stoper 'stopper'
storizmejker 'stories maker' storiteling 'storytelling' straggl 'struggle' strajder 'strider' strajking 'striking' strajpi 'stripy' strajpirovat' 'stripe' stranger 'stranger' strangulejt 'strangulate' strejndž 'strange' strejčing 'stretching' stridfud 'street food' strimerša 'streamer' strimlajn 'streamline' stritlajt 'streetlight' stritrejs 'street race' strongmèn 'strongman' superkul 'supercool' supernatural 'supernatural' supersajz 'supersize' superstajl 'super style' superstarz 'superstars' supersèmpling 'super sampling' superčardž 'supercharge'
suspendirovat' 'suspend'
49
sèjvori 'savory'
sèjvpojnt 'save point'
sèjk 'sake'
sèjlzmèn 'salesman'
sèjn 'sane'
sèjntski 'saint'
sèlfharming 'self-harming' sèmplirovat' 'sample'
tajmkiller 'time killer' tajmless 'timeless'
tajmmendžment 'time management' tajmstamp 'timestamp'
tajmfors 'time force' targetirovat'sja 'target'
taunhauz 'townhouse' testflajt 'test flight' tehnikalli 'technically' timfajt 'team fight' tinderdejt 'tinder date' tindermetč 'tinder match' topvojs 'top voice' topgerlz 'top girls' trablšutit' 'trouble shoot' trajharder 'try harder' trajhardmen 'try hard man' tranzišen 'transition' trankviliti 'tranquility' transgender 'transgender' transgressirovat' 'transgress' transkodirovat' 'transcode' transmišn 'transmission' transseksualka 'transsexual' trevelmanija 'travel mania' trejdanut' 'trade'
trejderovat' 'trader' trejderstvovat' 'trader' trejlraning 'trail running'
trejnhop 'train hop' trejts 'traits' trekat' 'track'
trekk 'track'
trekrekord 'track record' triangl 'triangle' zatriggerit’ ‘trigger’
triggerit'sja 'trigger' trikeri 'trickery' trimmingovat' 'trimming' tripanut' 'trip'
ul'travajolens 'ultra-violence' unforgiven 'unforgiven' faerbejz 'fire base' faerbol 'fire ball' faergard 'fireguard' fajrvud 'firewood'
fajèri 'fiery' fanfikšn 'fan fiction' fejdingovat' 'fading'
fejkanut' 'fake'
fejklav 'fake love' fejk-njus ‘fake news’
fejk-novost’ ‘fake’
fejsbidding 'face bidding'
50 fingerprinter 'finger printer' fingeršejming 'finger shaming' finišd 'finished'
fišeri 'fishery' fišnet 'fishnet' flajtšering 'flight sharing' flaunder 'flounder'
flèšmobit' 'flash mob' follbèk 'fallback' follovit'sja 'follow' forbiden 'forbidden'
former 'former'
fortifikejšn 'fortification' fotospamit' 'photo spam' fotospojler 'photo spoiler' fototipnyj 'phototype' fruting 'fruiting' frutkejk 'fruitcake' frèdžajl 'fragile' fudmarket 'food market' fudpejring 'food pairing' fudtrak 'food track' fudšering 'food sharing' futbord 'footboard'
f'jurri 'furry' fètšejmit' 'fat shame' hajdifinišn 'high definition' hajlajtit' 'highlight'
haknutyj 'hack'
hammerhed 'hammerhead'
handred 'hundred'
hanibejbez 'honey babes'
hanters 'hunters'
harasit' 'harass' harasser 'harasser' hardkorovec 'hardcore' harrikejnz 'hurricanes' hartbrejk 'heartbreak' hevenli 'heavenly' hedžingovyj 'hedging' hedlajn 'headline' hejtit’ 'hate' hitmejker 'hit maker'
hičat' 'hitch'
hoarding 'hoarding'
holdevej 'hold away'
honest 'honest'
houmofis 'home office'
houmran 'home run'
houmstej 'homestay'
humanizirovat' 'humanize'
hèdžit' 'hedge'
hèdhantit' 'headhunt'
hèp 'hap'
hètčer 'hatcher'
51 šejpšifter 'shape shifter' šiping 'shipping'
šipmen 'shipman'
šipment 'shipment'
šitpostit’ 'shit post' šitposting 'shit posting'
šopit'sja 'shop'
šopper 'shopper'
èvidentnyj 'evident' èvoljušn 'evolution'
èdalteri 'adultery' èdvajzori 'advisory' èksfolirovat' 'exfoliate' èmbossirovat' 'emboss' èngejdžment 'engagement' èndorsment 'endorsement'
èndurans 'endurance'
ènerdžajzingovyj 'energizing'
ènivèjs 'anyways'
èskortirovat' 'escort' èstimèjtit' 'estimate'
51
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