Conformist behaviours

Prisoner characteristics such as pre-imprisonment employment and education, or being in a stable relationship prior to imprisonment and having dependent children have been found to have a negative relationship with prison offending (Cunningham &

Sorensen, 2006). These behaviours, reflective of conventional norms in society, have also been linked to a reduction in the likelihood of offending in the community, with people who are employed, have higher levels of education or have children being less likely to offend (e.g., Bonta & Nanckivell, 1980). These characteristics have been referred to as conformist behaviours as they are indicative of conformity to the customs and norms within modern society, and describe accepted or conventional behaviour (Shoemaker, 2010). Although some researchers have not found a recognisable link between prisoners’ commitment to conformist behaviours and prison offending (e.g., Gover, Perez & Jennings, 2008; Kuanliang & Sorensen, 2008; Steiner & Wooldredge, 2009), most accept that variables such as these are relevant to an understanding of prison offending (e.g., Bonta & Nanckivell, 1980; Harer & Langan, 2001). Research findings will be explored in detail in the following sections.

Employment

The few studies that have included pre-imprisonment employment as a potential indicator of prison offending have brought about mixed results. For example, research conducted in the United States using self-report data and a sample of male prisoners (Steiner & Wooldredge, 2008) and male and female prisoners (Kuanliang & Sorensen, 2008) found that pre-imprisonment employment had a significant negative relationship with prison offending, with pre-imprisonment employment being associated with a lower prevalence and incidence of prison offending.

Other research conducted in the United States using self-report data, however, found that pre-imprisonment employment was not a significant predictor of prison offending in a sample of female prisoners (Steiner & Wooldredge, 2009) and male prisoners (Bonta & Nanckivell, 1980). The second of these two studies, however, reported on the prevalence of prison offending as an average per day per prisoner, and similarly recorded pre-imprisonment employment over the total prisoner sample as a percentage of the sample (e.g., at the prison level, rather than the prisoner-level). It is also noted that this study used a very small cohort of male prisoners which may affect the reliability of the findings (Bonta & Nanckivell, 1980). In addition, all studies reviewed which discuss the relationship between pre-imprisonment employment and prison offending used self-report data collected during interviews with prisoners or via surveys. The accuracy of the data, therefore, is reliant on the veracity of the information given to the researchers at the time of the research projects being conducted.

Education

The few studies which have included prisoners’ education levels as a variable have brought about mixed results in regard to its relationship with prison offending, although it is generally accepted that the higher a prisoner’s educational attainment, the lower the prevalence and incidence of offending within prison (e.g., Berg, DeLisi & Hochstetler, 2004). For example, a body of research conducted in the United States using official data and a male and female prisoner sample (Cunningham & Sorensen, 2006; Cunningham & Sorensen, 2007; Friedman, Melnick, Jiang & Hamilton, 2008), a male prisoner sample (Fernandez & Neiman, 1998), a sample of male prisoners released from death row (Cunningham, Sorensen, Vigen & Woods, 2010) and a female prisoner sample (Larson &

Nelson, 1984) found that a higher level of education prior to imprisonment had a negative relationship with the incidence of prison offending.

However, some studies have reported that educational attainment prior to imprisonment is not significantly related to the likelihood of prisoners’ offending within prison. A body of research from the United States using self-report and official data from a sample of male and female prisoners, and female prisoners only, found that prisoners’ education prior to imprisonment was not a significant predictor (Gover, Perez &

Jennings, 2008; Kuanliang & Sorensen, 2008; Steiner & Wooldredge, 2009). This was also found in a study conducted in the United Kingdom using self-report data from a sample of male prisoners with confirmed personality disorders (Dolan & Blackburn, 2006). However, the findings of this particular study may not be generalisable to other settings due to all participants having a personality disorder. In addition, it is interesting to note that all studies which found no relationship between educational attainment and prison offending used self-report data collected during interviews or via surveys, and such data is reliant on the veracity of the information given to the researchers at the time of the research projects being conducted.

Marital status and children

Prisoners’ marital status and having had children have been considered as a reflection of prisoners’ commitment to conformity (Steiner & Wooldredge, 2009). Specifically, having a stable relationship with a spouse prior to imprisonment and having dependent children have been generally accepted to have an inverse relationship with offending (Cunningham & Sorensen, 2006). For example, studies using self-report data from a sample of male and female prisoners in the United States found that being married at imprisonment, or previously married at some point prior to imprisonment, lowered the prevalence of prisoners’ offending within prison (Kuanliang & Sorensen, 2008) as did a similar study conducted using a sample of male prisoners (Bonta & Nanckivell, 1980). Similarly, having unsupportive relationships in the community was found to increase prisoners’ likelihood of prison offending in a study of female prisoners in the United States using both self-report and official data (Wright, Salisbury & Van Voorhis, 2007). It is noted, however, that this study did not further define the term ‘unsupportive relationship’. In addition, the study related this variable to any significant

relationship, rather than a marital or romantic relationship only. Researchers suggest that the question remains in regard to whether being married actually decreases the likelihood of rule violations, or whether prisoners’ marital status may merely serve as an indicator of an underlying cause such as greater self-control, which subsequently results in a lesser likelihood of offending in prison (Kuanliang & Sorensen, 2008).

Having had children has been rarely included as a variable relating to prisoner offending in previous studies. However, those studies that have included having had children have brought about mixed results. Having had children was found to be a significant predictor of prison offending in a study conducted in the United States using a sample of female prisoners and official data (Steiner & Wooldredge, 2009). These researchers explained their findings by suggesting that having had children prior to imprisonment may reflect a greater commitment by prisoners to conventional behaviour (Steiner & Wooldredge, 2009). A similar study, however, of male prisoners conducted in the United States using official data found that the more children prisoners had, the greater the prevalence of being involved in violent misconduct (Jiang & Fisher- Giorlando, 2002). These researchers advised that although contact with family and community support networks through letters, telephone calls and visits indicate a level of stability for prisoners, who are then less likely to commit offences in prison, it is noted that the quality of the relationship between prisoners and their children prior to their imprisonment is unknown. In addition, the researchers noted that it was also unknown as to whether the prisoners had been able to maintain these relationships. Therefore, having had children may result in the opposite effect in regard to prison offending, in relation to those prisoners who have strained or non-existent relationships with their children (Jiang & Fisher-Giorlando, 2002).