Content Analysis Studies (Embedded Explanatory Study

Content Analysis Approach

According to Hsieh and Shannon (2005) there are three approaches to content analysis. Fahy and Proulx (2005) studied media reports of the WTC 9/11 incident using the directed approach. The main purpose of content analysis is to interpret the meaning from the context of “text” data. The main differences between the three approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes and threats to authenticity (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). The directed approach as described by Wildemuth and Zhang (2009) shows that the analysis (see Chapter 6 and Appendix A6) starts with a theory or research findings. In this instance the theory is represented by “Outcome 2” from the Delphi Group process (Figure 3-12) with the classifications being equivalent to the contextual classifications. The latter form the initial codes. The context analysis approach to be used is therefore a directed approach with axial coding being used to derive categories within the classification (initial coding) directly from the text. Content analysis is ideally suitable for media related text as well as the notes taken from focus groups.

139

Figure 3-13: Classification Framework of Core Consistencies and Coding Categories.

Figure 3-13 shows the initial coding of the core consistencies (classifications). Further coding into sub-categories is seen as being part of the analysis (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005) and the complete list of subcategories may be found in Appendix A6. Mixed methods are used in the analysis where the frequencies of responses presented in the document text are measured and the pattern compared between the two studies described in the next section.

Figure 3-13 also shows the relationship of the Focus Group to the main coding classifications or core consistencies.

Selection of Study Documents

Media reports of WTC 9/11 incident survivors have been analysed by many (Fahy and Proulx, 2005 and Dwyer and Flynn, 2004). Dwyer and Flynn (2004) reviewed records of telephone calls from within the Towers as well as those of interviews with survivors. This study contained included many of the contextual factors included in the “Outcome 2” document (Figure 3-12) as well as setting up rival interpretations to another study of the WTC 9/11 incident by Galea et al (2008 and 2011) concerning fatigue being masked by the resting time provided by extensive delays and density (Spearpoint and MacLennan, 2012).

The Individual Office Worker or Occupant:

• A

• B

• C

• D etc.

You and others on the stairs - (The Group) • A • B • C • D etc. Stairwell Enclosure and Stair Design/Construction

•A

•B

•C

•D etc.

Management and Maintenance

•A

•B

•C

•D etc.

called “ANYTHING ELSE”when used as Focus Group Prompt.

Descent capability (perceived) Checked by distance traversed

and actual speed, fitness etc. Examples of each provided to Focus Group Members &

Content Analysis coding categories

Parker-Pope (2008) a respected journalist with the New York Times was concerned with a series on whether or not the population was fit enough to survive an emergency. She facilitated a “blog”115 on the issue and invited comments. This approach also corresponded with the theme of a seminal paper by Pauls, Fruin and Zupan (2007). There were over 100 comments, many of which dealt with community attitudes on group behaviour and fitness during evacuations in the descending stairs. The directed approach of content analysis was therefore suitable so that the Parker-Pope blog was selected for analysis (Parker-Pope, 2008).

Specific Methods of data extraction and analysis

The transcript was in the form of a published document on survivor interviews assembled by Dwyer and Flynn (2004) and a series of comments made by participants in a blog or chat room facilitated by Parker-Pope of the NY Times (2008)116. The text was interrogated and comments extracted that dealt directly with evacuees’ experience within the stair shafts, formation of groups, evacuation management both central and local and description of their associated intrinsic characteristics. The comments were numbered in sequence and inserted in the “comments” column of tables with the format of Table 3- 6

The comments in the columns were then axially coded into columns representing the core consistencies that represented the Delphi Group classifications in Figure 3-13 above and as described above by inserting a red

115 _{Definition of “blog” from Encyclopaedia Britannica: blog, in full Web log or Weblog, online}

journal where an individual, group, or corporation presents a record of activities, thoughts, or beliefs. Some blogs operate

mainly as news filters, collecting various online sources and adding short comments and Internet links. Other blogs concentrate on presenting original material. In addition, many blogs provide a forum to allow visitors to leave comments and interact with the publisher. “To blog” is the act of composing material for a blog. Materials are largely written, but pictures, audio, and videos are important elements of many blogs. The “blogosphere” is the online universe of blogs 116 _{The theme was whether or not people would be fit enough to survive an evacuation.}

141

tick in the relevant core consistency column (Table 3- 6). Based on the context of the text the core consistencies were split further into sub categories as shown in the sub category extraction tables in Appendix A6.

Table 3- 6: Specimen Directed Content Analysis Schedule

The sub categories were coded into tables with an appropriate key word for the next part of the analysis which is either matching it with a coding sub category or where one does not exist deriving a further category (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The categories shown above are a result of the analysis of the two studies (Dwyer and Flynn, 2004 and Parker-Pope, 2008).

The schedules of the comments and core consistency and the frequencies of their subcategories are presented in Appendix A6 under each appropriate study (Dwyer and Flynn, 2004 and Parker-Pope, 2008).The analysis of these data is presented in Section 6.4 - 6.7. The results are also summarised on RCA Ishikawa Charts in Chapter 6.