The continuum of autonomy: Action-interaction-reflection One of the most important goals of learner autonomy is the development of

critical reflection. Second language learners should critically reflect on the learning process, re-evaluate their strategies and develop linguistic and metalinguistic awareness (Schwienhorst, 2011). The clinical psychologist, Kelly (1955), emphasizes in the Personal Construct theory the key role of reflection and self-awareness in learning. Kelly proposed that individuals act like personal scientists and interpret the world and construct their own unique version of reality, using a hierarchical system of personal constructs. This notion is reflected in autonomy theory where “the successful learner is increasingly seen as a person who is able to construct knowledge directly from experience of the world” (Benson, 2001, p.19). Similarly, Kohonen (1992, p.24) argues that “raising the awareness of one’s own learning and gaining an understanding of the process involved is thus an important key to the

51 development of autonomous learning. Conscious reflection with other learners in cooperative groups makes it possible to increase one’s awareness of learning”.

There is a wealth of literature that suggests that reflection is the catalyst for deeper learning, problem solving and professional development in adult education (Bloom, 1956; Brown, Bransford, Ferrara & Campione, 1983; Dewey, 1933; Flower & Hayes, 1980; Schön,1983, Clare, 2007; Davys & Beddoe, 2009). However, one of the difficulties of studying the literature on reflection is that research on reflection emanates from distinct disciplines such as psychology, education, philosophy and sociology. Additionally, the concept of reflection is sometimes used interchangeably with critical thinking, experiential learning, problem solving, metacognitive awareness, reflective practice or reasoning (Moon, 2005).

John Dewey, the eminent philosopher, was an early advocate of reflection. He first introduced the concept of reflective thinking in education in 1933, when he published the book How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Dewey defined reflection as “active,

persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends” (1993, p. 9). He believed that learners are not able to think, capture or understand any concept unless they engage through doubt and questioning in deep-reflective thinking of experience. Particularly, Dewey (1993) suggested that:

...[reflective thinking] emancipates us from merely impulsive and

merely routine activity [and] ...enables us to direct our activities with

foresight. ...[Reflection] enables us to know what we are about when

we act. It converts action that is merely appetitive, blind, and

52 Dewey (1993) aligned reflection with critical self-examination of one’s beliefs that originates in a state of doubt and turns into “an act of searching, hunting, inquiring to find material that will resolve the doubt, settle and dispose of the perplexity” (p. 12). Particularly, reflective thought is considered a scientific inquiry process that consists of five stages: a) suggesting solutions to a problem, b) realization of the perplexity that one must deal with, c) hypothesis generation to deal with the origin of the problem, d) building an assumption or possible theory through reasoning, e) testing the hypothesis in action. Based on the belief that reflection, as a conscious action occurs when one is making meaning from experiences, Dewey (1993) pointed out the importance of interaction with other people and the environment and suggested that reflection is built from personal experience. Similarly, Boud (1985) stressed the importance of evaluating experience in reflective thinking. He advocated that learning how to think, integrating existing knowledge with new knowledge and applying new understanding into one’s personal framework is a core element of reflective thought. During reflection, learners become aware of current problems and implement strategies or test some hypotheses to examine workable solutions. The reflection process is complete when solutions are found to the problem-perplexion and new knowledge structures are formed (Atkins and Murphy, 1993).

Based on the notion that reflection is an intellectual activity that is built upon learner’s exploration of experiences, many thinkers attempted to describe and explain this process from various contexts (Schön, 1987, Boyd and Fales, 1983, Kolb, 1984, Boud et al.,1985, Mezirow 1991, Fogarty, 1994, Langer, 1997, Moon, 1999a, Kember et al. 2000, Hay et al. 2004). This study aims to explore learners’ experiences and perceptions on online written reflections on blogs and online oral reflections via vlogs.

Wikis and Google Drive, blogs and vlogs are being used in this study as online learning environments, which allow experimentation, interaction- collaboration and provide opportunities for critical reflection. Specifically, wiki is a stress-free environment for learners, as teachers do not supervise it at all

53 times. Therefore, learners are more likely to experiment and take risks. Wiki as a digital writing tool provides students opportunities for academic reading and writing. Wells asserts, “in writing the individual is made most aware of the symbolizing function of the language…” (1981 c, p.254). Written text can serve as a resource that can be analyzed, manipulated and edited in a variety of ways (Wells, 1981 c). Writing as a process can also be thought as an external memory and as a cognitive amplifier (Bruner, 1972). Many scholars are consistent with the use of learner diaries or other forms of written documents (Dam, 2000, Little, 1997a, Gabrielssen, 1991) because they believe that the written use of the target language increases metalinguistic awareness.

Autonomy is not a solely individual cognitive process of independence and self-determination. Interdependence is equally important for the development of autonomy (Schwienhorst, 2011). The importance of social interaction and peer support in the development of mental abilities and learning is central to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory “The Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD). “It is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Scholars in autonomy have acknowledged the importance of social interaction for the development of learner autonomy. Benson (1996) views autonomy in language learning as a socially mediated process and notes that students’ collaboration can lead to the development of high order thinking skills.

There are many ways to foster interaction and collaboration in an ESL classroom (role-play, project-based learning, etc.). However, most researchers agree that virtual learning environments provide a wide range of opportunities for interaction and collaboration using synchronous and asynchronous web tools (chat, blogging, forum, wikis, web-mail, etc.). Current research has indicated that students who are engaged in the use of wikis as a collaborative writing tool value the opportunity to communicate online and

54 share feedback with more knowledgeable peers. Corrective feedback by peers, either written or oral, gives learner the opportunity to become more aware of their thoughts, to modify and develop them (Schwienhorst, 2011). Thus, corrective feedback provides more than mere correction. Particularly, written feedback can work towards the development of greater language and linguistic awareness.

The language learner apart from being supported to take control and assume responsibility for his own learning needs to be put into a position where he can reflect on his learning and experiment with authentic language learning materials (Schwienhorst, 2010). “Learners who are exposed to authentic materials have more possibilities to move towards autonomy because they have a more positive attitude towards language learning when they are assigned tasks that are meaningful and enjoyable for them” (McGary, 1995, p.3).

The Internet offers, without doubt access to a large variety of authentic language resources. Exploring the web for learning resources has become an important literacy skill. Web 2.0 provided learners more opportunities for interaction and experimentation with dynamic Internet resources as it enabled learners to contribute in several ways (posting comments in forums and blogs, constructing wikis, taking part in webquests, creating videos etc.). Particularly, wikis provide rich opportunities for learners to take a more active role and contribute to the online learning process (Benson and Samarawickrema, 2007, 2009). Wiki is a virtual learning environment that motivates learners to search for language resources, evaluate them and experiment in writing for an audience.

The notion of exploration and active participation in the learning process is emphasized in constructivism. Constructivist theories view language as an active process of continuous knowledge construction, as a result of investigation, manipulation and invention of information and interaction with the environment and experiences.Social constructivist researchers argue that CALL environments provide opportunities for a learner-centered pedagogy,

55 promote active engagement in the learning process, promote interaction, foster critical thinking and give students more control on their own learning (Benson, 2001; Blin, 2004; Leahy, 2008).

Figure 4 Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (Sincero, 2011)