been evident for the past century. AIton-Lee and Praat (2000, p. 295) claim that "the gender gaps favouring girls' achievement are most marked in speaking and reading. Gaps in performance on reading, literacy and English have been evident in New Zealand assessment data for over a hundred years."
Historically, education has not been equal. In the past, educational opportunities favoured the boys, especially those from wealthy or titled families. Boys' significant advantage in schooling represented the way society viewed boys' and girls' roles at that particular time. Society' S thinking in that era restricted women's education. For instance, in the late 1 780' s there was a common belief that there was a link between body and mind; a female ' s greater weakness of body was reflected in her mind as was the male' s superior physical strength reflected in his mind.
Figure 2.1
HISToRICAL PERSPECTIVE
Factors contributing to gender gap.
A hundred years later the discussions concerned a body' s overstrain. In other words, a body's energy had to be managed, and energy was finite. Doctors were concerned with the stress intellectual endeavors might have on women's capacity for healthy maternity (Cohen, 1 998 p. 27). There was a distinct role and place for woman in society but that role was not side-by-side with man. Women could not cope with the same physical or intellectual rigors as men.
Cohen (in Epstein et al. 1 998, p. 28) argued that boys have always underachieved.
The underachievement of boys can be, and always has been, masked by cultural constructs like "gentleman, "character", "potential" which have been essential to the construct of English masculinity since the turn of the nineteenth century. (p. 30)
It was not academic achievement but "character" that was at the heart of education in the Victorian public schools. (p. 28)
Schooling for boys was not about academic achievement but concerned more with the development of good character and gentlemanly attitudes. In this historical school system the masculine code of behaviour was developed. Boys were encouraged to be the strong silent types. Boys ' Own Annuals and related stories reflected the adventure hero who was strong, loyal, reliable, and who protected or saved those weaker than him. This is evident in the writing of Lord Baden-Powell, the founder of the Scouting movement, who summed up the expected character of the boy in Scouting for Boys ' ( 1 900). "A scout whistles and smiles under all difficulties." The English Public School system was duplicated throughout England's colonies, so countries such as New Zealand developed the same boys' ethos of the strong male character. "Play the game hard and play the game fair" were typical school mottos of the day. The prowess on the rugby field, athleticism, school prefects and competitive School House systems were what was considered to be important within the boys' school. These systems within the schools were deemed to contribute to character building and assisted in the construct of masculinity and the desired behaviours of a gentleman.
Mac an Ghaill ( 1 994) carried out a three year ethnographic study that investigated social construction and regulation of masculinities in an English state secondary school. He identified four contrasting masculine identities within his research: ( 1 .) the 'Macho Lads' , (2.) the 'Academic Achievers ' , (3.)" the 'New Enterprisers' , and (4.) the 'Real Englishmen' . It is the 'Real Englishmen' , which has important historic perspective. This group saw themselves as arbiters of culture, rejecting the school' s work ethic, believing that intellectual talent was naturally inscribed to them and that achievement was effortless for them. They were critical of hardworking students, especially those from the 'Academic Achievers' group. Cohen ( 1 998, p. 29) argued that the effortless achievement constructs the "Real Englishmen' s natural" intellectual talent as it has the
mental superiority of the aristocrat or gentleman. This argument is supported by Power et al. ( 1 998, p. 143) who claimed that 'Effortless achievement' is a key concept in the English aristocratic attitude to education. The Public school system, which New Zealand adopted from the 1 850' s, traditionally promotes the ethos of manliness, of good character and natural ability. Mac an Ghaill argued that these same attitudes were still prevalent in many schools today.
Historically, boys and girls have not had equitable opportunities in education. A 'girls versus boys' , or 'boys turn; girls turn' attitude does nothing to raise educational standards. The essential point is that curriculum adaptations, school programmes and support should not be developed that meet the needs of one at the expense of the other (Weaver-Hightower, 2003). The emphasis needs to be placed on ensuring that learning conditions are created for all students, which creates gender equitable outcomes of the highest standard.
2.21 Contributing Factor: Changes in Society
There have been a number of dramatic changes over the last thirty-five years within our society, especially in the area of employment and the traditional role of the male in the work place. J ackson (in Epstein et al. 1 998, p. 79) outlined:
The social upheavals of the last 25 years - ferrunist challenges, unemployment, the collapse of the male breadwinner and the traditional father as head of the household, the emergence of HIV / AIDS and de-industrialisation - have unsettled the traditional models of dorrunant, white, heterosexual masculinities.
The large traditionally male workplaces that offered labouring, semi-skilled and skilled work with stability of employment have either down sized or disappeared. Large employers based around agricultural, engineering, and machinery have basically disappeared, for example freezing works, coalmines, railroads, post office and ship building. The disappearance of such large work places has reduced the opportunity for young men to leave school and gain an apprenticeship, a trade, and secure employment for 40 years. It is now difficult for many boys to become respectable, working men with a sense of status, pride and security in their job (Jackson, 1 998).
As the work place has changed, so has the type of employment, which requires a different set of skills with a less stable employment environment. Large manual and
semi-skilled machinery industries have been replaced with new service industries such as commerce, finance, tourism, and communication and computer technologies. These new service industries require employees with communication, keyboard and interpersonal skills. As Hawkes (200 1 , p. 29) argued, "boys have found employment prospects declining given that many boys lack the attributes necessary to be considered an asset to an organisation."
Males find they are now faced with new employment conditions, lack of job security, and a change from traditional work skills. The male can also find himself not being the sole family breadwinner or in some cases the lesser paid of the two breadwinners. All this is a challenge to the traditional male image, as well as to their sense of status, pride and security.