Control-Problem Orientation Continuum

The Control-Problem Orientation Continuum ranges between the defensive Control pole and the supportive Problem orientation pole. Control indicates negative communication behaviour and Problem-orientation indicates positive communication behaviour.

3.4.2.1 Defensive (negative) communication pole

Control

Control, refers to expected conformity, rigidity and inhibition of change (Buchanan & Huczynski 2010:228). It is a behaviour that can increase defensiveness and occurs when members of a group try to impose their will on others (Trenholm 2011:185). It is a common occurrence that in social interaction, one person is attempting to do something to another person – to change an attitude, to influence behaviour, or to restrict the field of activity (Gibb 1988:3). Control is thus an ability to change or modify behaviour by the systematic use of applicable reinforcement or punishment (Reber et al 2009:168). The extent to which these attempts to control produce defensiveness depends on the openness of the effort. Suspicion that hidden motives exist increases resistance. Control is often marked by implicit attempts to be manipulative and the speaker may view, or appear to view, the listener as arrogant, unwise, uninformed or of possessing inappropriate attitudes (Czech & Forward 2013:12, Gibb 1961).

Control in communication is the effort that one person applies to dominate or change another person. It is also when a person insists on having things his or her way. In conversations, statements might include: “I want to do things this way, so that’s what we are going to do” (Adams & Galanes 2012:114). Speech which is used to control the listener as speech evoking resistance can be classified as controlling speech. The term controlling refers to the use of power to influence people’s behaviour or the course of events. It is also the restriction of an activity, tendency or phenomenon (Soanes et al 2009:311). Controlling occurs when a “sender seems to be imposing a solution on the receiver with little regard for the receiver’s needs or interests” (Adler et al 2009:366).

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Controlling messages can be viewed as an attempt to control another individual. These types of message can communicate status and create hostility, thus the resulting communication climate might be defensive and negative. The receiver of a controlling message will feel incapacitated and powerless to contribute anything of substance to the conversation because of a loss of confidence between sender and receiver (Steinberg & Angelopulo 2015:172).

The term hostility refers to a feeling of intense anger and resentment, exhibited by destructive behaviour (Keltner et al 2011:512), and is distinguished from anger on the grounds that anger is “a more intense and momentary reaction” whilst hostility is “a long-lasting emotional state characterized by enmity towards others” (Reber et al 2009: 355). Non-verbal communication behaviour manifests itself in gesture clusters. One of these clusters is defensiveness (hostility), which is characterised by gestures such as a rigid closed posture, arms and legs tightly crossed, eyes glancing sideways, minimal eye contact, frowning, no smiling, pursed lips, clenched fists, head down and a flat tone of voice (Buchanan & Huczynski 2010:219).

Communication could be used to maintain control and power in relational groups through the withholding of information, deliberate partial sharing of information, communicating within a specific group only, communicating in a language that others do not understand and the use of silence when a reply is required (Gardezi, Lingard, Espin, Whyte, Orser, & Baker 2009:1390-1399; Longman 2013:116).

From an organisational point of view, the controlling manager feels a need to be in charge of all situations and permanently act in an authoritarian manner in an attempt to change the employee (Costigan & Schmeidler 1984:112-114). This manager will also try to change the attitudes and behaviour of others to suit his or her own will and control how others do their work (see Box 3.3).

BOX 3.3: SUMMARY OF THE EMPIRICAL CONSTRUCTS AND CONCEPTS FOR CONTROL

The negative communication behaviour constructs identified from the literature on control (Costigan & Schmeidler 1984; Gibb 1961; Adler et al 2009; Forward et al 2011; Czech & Forward 2013) include:

trying to change the attitudes and behaviour of others; controlling how others do their work and a needtobeincharge of all situations.Themain(communicationbehaviour)conceptsextrapolated from these constructs are: dominate; impose; modify; hostile; manipulate and restrict (see Figure 3.2).

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3.4.2.2 Supportive (positive) communication pole

Problem Orientation

Problem-orientation focuses on finding solutions to problems and is collaborative in nature. In the view of Erasmus, Swanepoel, Schenk, Van der Westhuizen and Wessels (2005:291), the manager who acts as helper and facilitator, discussing problems, needs, innovations and dissatisfactions experienced by employees, is a problem-solver. The main focus of such a discussion should be on growth and development and Jeong (2010:165) adds that “problems-solving entails non-evaluative brainstorming of potential solutions along with the creation of a climate for free exchange of ideas”. Problem orientated people use language that is not overtly controlling or persuasive, but instead is focused on a desire for collaboration. The sender will use language that seeks a mutual definition of the problem and will imply that there is no predetermined attitude, solution or method to impose, and is usually open to finding the best solution to a problem (Czech & Forward 2013:12; Gibb 1961). A speaker who is problem orientated tends to be non-directive and refrain from imposing on the receiver a set of values, a point of view or a problem solution. Non-controllers thus have to earn the perceptions that their motives harbour no hidden agendas (Gibb 1988:3).

According to Adams and Galanes (2012:114), problem-orientation refers to a persons’ effort to search honestly for the best solution without having a predetermined idea of what the solution should be. The problem-orientation position is indicative of collaborative behaviour (Trenholm 2011:185). Conversations may include statements such as: “What ideas do you all have about how we might solve this?” Collaborating refers to working jointly with others, especially in an intellectual endeavour (Merriam Webster 2013). Collaboration is used, according to Yoder-Wise (2010, cited by Bezuidenhout 2014e:375), when individuals have to work through difficult emotional issues that are interfering with morale, organisational growth or productivity.

Forhealthcareproviders“collaborationisaninter-professionalprocess of communication and decision making that enables the separate and shared knowledge and skills” (Stone 2009:3). Co-operators, using collaboration, are interested in helping both themselves and their colleagues to achieve the greater good (Kneisl & Trigoboff 2009:23).

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Communication enables members to urge each other to cooperate, to discuss plans, to make promises, to convince each other that they are trustworthy and to learn about each other. Therefore effective collaboration is based on respect for the position from which another person acts, accepting that the values and culture of individuals directs their beliefs and the climate in which they operate (Kneisl & Trigoboff 2009:23).

Costigan and Schmeidler (1984:112-114) state that a manager who is problem orientated will define problems instead of giving solutions, is open to discussion of problems (of a mutual nature), does not impose a set of values or point of view on others and is not insistent on agreement from the employee. The manager also seeks the inputs of the employees on problems and issues in the organisation to find the best solutions to these problems (see Box 3.4). To define a problem means to simplify the problem in order for others to understand it better. It is possible that others are unaware of the existence of problems and someone has to take the lead in making them aware of the existence of the problem in a simplified, understandable way.

BOX 3.4: SUMMARY OF EMPIRICAL CONSTRUCTS AND CONCEPTS FOR PROBLEM-

ORIENTATION

The positive communication behaviour constructs identified from the literature on problem-orientation (Costigan&Schmeidler 1984; Gibb 1961; Adler et al 2009; Forward et al 2011; Czech & Forward 2013) include: defining problems for understanding and making others aware of them; not imposing a setof values/pointof view onothersand seekingthebest solution to a problem. Themain(communication behaviour) concepts extracted from these constructs are: collaborate; non-direct; facilitate; define and

simplify (see Figure 3.2).

FIGURE 3.2: SCHEMATIC PRESENTATION OF THE CONTROL-PROBLEM-ORIENTATION

CONTINUUM OF THE GIBB’S DEFENSIVE COMMUNICATION CLIMATE PARADIGM

Source: Adapted from Gibb, JR. 1961. Defensive Communication. Journal of Communication (11):141-148;

Costigan, JI & Schmeidler, MA. 1984. Exploring supportive and defensive communication climates.

Modify Collaborate

COMMUNICATION CLIMATE PARADIGM

COMMUNICATION CLIMATE FOCUS

PROFESSIONAL NURSE DEFENSIVE NEGATIVE BEHAVIOUR SUPPORTIVE POSITIVE BEHAVIOUR CONTROL- PROBLEM ORIENTATION CONTINUUM Dominate

Impose Facilitate Simplify

 Controls the work of others

 Wants to change the attitudes or behaviour of others

 Needs to be in charge of all situations

 Seeks best solutions to problems

 Does not impose on the views of others

 Defines problems for understanding

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