negatively correlated with self-control. No significant relationship was found (r(47) = -0.80, p = 0.681).
Discussion
The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the relationship between mood and impulsive behavior regarding food. The major hypothesis predicted that both positive and negative mood, as opposed to neutral mood, would increase impulsivity for hypothetical food reinforcers, however, no significant relationships were found.
One potential reason there were no significant results found is that mood was not sufficiently manipulated. According to a manipulation check that was done by conducting a MANOVA, there was no significant relationship found between the positive PANAS score for group 1, and the positive PANAS score for group 3. There was also no significant relationship found between the negative PANAS score of group 1 and group 3.
Methodological changes may have had unintended effects that impacted the results. Students during the first half of the experimented completed all surveys, with the exception of the delay discounting task, as paper and pencil measures, where the experimenter came in and out to deliver each new survey. The second half of the study, the participants took all
questionnaires in an online survey format. This was only potentially problematic for the Musical Mood Induction Procedure, where in the first half of the study, the experimenter came in to start the music, and then came back when the music was over to deliver the survey, ensuring that the participant at the very least listened to the music. In the online format, participants were
prompted to listen to music, but they could have skipped through this part without having listened to the audio.
Sample size is another consideration. With only 50 participants, and even fewer who experienced a change in mood, there may not have been enough data to show a relationship.
Due to the hypothetical nature of the reinforcers, the potential external validity of the research is lessened. In previous studies where the musical mood induction procedure has predicted a food-related outcome, intake of real food was used (Cools, Schotte & McNally, 1992). Similarly, where other mood induction procedures were used, real food intake was measured (Evers et al., 2013; Yeomans & Coughlan, 2009; Patel & Schlundt, 2001). Also, many of these studies divided participants into groups based on restraint status (Evers at el., 2013; Yeomans & Coughlan, 2009) or used a particular group of women, for example, Patel and Schlundt’s (2001) study exclusively used obese participants. A difference in procedure and type of participants could be part of the explanation for why no significant results were found in the present study.
It can be hard to reliably manipulate mood in the desired way, and then reliably measure mood. Therefore making secondary measurements based on a mood manipulation has the potential to be inaccurate. Though the MMIP has been validated by previous research, perhaps a different method should have been used in this setting and with this sample.
Additionally, there are other potential influences on outcome due to the method of using a participant pool to recruit participants. Students in an introductory psychology course are required to participate in studies of their choosing. While these participants are often not curious about what the study is investigating, they are also sometimes unconcerned with following directions or answering accurately.
The findings of this research will contribute to the growing literature concerning food choices and their influences. The findings will also add to the literature on impulsivity. The lack of expected results from the mood manipulation also contribute to existing literature describing how to effectively manipulate mood.
Future research might explore the possibility of using real food reinforcers or a more externally valid way of making food choices. Additionally, perhaps a stronger mood induction procedure is needed to sufficiently see the effects of such mood states.
References
Ainslie, G. W. (1974). Impulse control in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21(3), 485-489.
Albersnagel, F. A. (1988). Velten and musical mood induction procedures: A comparison with accessibility of thought associations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26(1), 79-95. Andrade, E.B. (2005). Behavioral consequences of affect. Combining evaluative and regulatory
mechanisms. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 355-362.
Baumeister, R.F., & Heatherton, T. (1996). Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1-15.
Bouhuys, A. L., Bloem, G. M., & Groothuis, T. G. (1995). Induction of depressed and elated mood by music influences the perception of facial emotional expressions in healthy subjects. Journal of Affective Disorders, 33(4), 215-226.
Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989). The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193-213.
Christensen, L. (1997). The effect of carbohydrates on affect. Nutrition, 13(6), 503-514.
Clark, L., Iversen, S. D., & Goodwin, G. M. (2001). The influence of positive and negative mood states on risk taking, verbal fluency, and salivary cortisol. Journal of Affective Disorders, 63(1), 179-187.
Clark, D. M., & Teasdale, J. D. (1985). Constraints on the effects of mood on memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(6), 1595.
Cohen, S., & Williamson, G.M. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In S. Spacapan & Oskamp (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Cools, J., Schotte, D. E., & McNally, R. J. (1992). Emotional arousal and overeating in
restrained eaters. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(2), 348-351. doi:10.1037/0021- 843X.101.2.348
Crean, J., Richards, J. B., de Wit, H. (2002). Effect of tryptophan depletion on impulsive behavior in men with or without a family history of alcoholism. Behav. Brain Res. 136:349-357.
Dalley, J. W., & Roiser, J. P. (2012). Dopamine, serotonin and impulsivity. Neuroscience, 215, 42-58.
Davis, R., Freeman, R. J., & Garner, D. M. (1988). A naturalistic investigation of eating behavior in bulimia nervosa. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(2), 273.
Eagle, D. M., Bari, A., & Robbins, T. W. (2008). The neuropsychopharmacology of action inhibition: Cross-species translation of the stop-signal and go/no-go tasks.
Psychopharmacology, 199(3), 439-456.
Eaton, W. W., Smith, C., Ybarra, M., Muntaner, C., & Tien, A. (2004). Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: review and revision (CESD and CESD-R).
Evers, C., Adriaanse, M., de Ridder, D. T., & de Witt Huberts, J. C. (2013). Good mood food. Positive emotion as a neglected trigger for food intake. Appetite, 68, 1-7.
Forzano, L. B., & Corry, R. J. (1998). Self-control and impulsiveness in adult human females: Effects of visual food cues. Learning and Motivation, 29, 184-199.
doi:10.1006/Imot.1998.1001.
Forzano, L. B., & Logue, A. W. (1992). Predictors of adult humans' self-control and impulsiveness for food reinforcers. Appetite, 19(1), 33-47.
Forzano, L. B., & Logue, A. W. (1994). Self-control in adult humans: Comparison of qualitatively different reinforcers. Learning and Motivation, 25, 65-82. doi:10.1006/1mot.1994.1004.
Forzano, L. B., & Logue, A. W. (1995). Self-control and impulsiveness in children and adults: Effects of food preferences. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 64, 33-46. doi:10.1901/jeab. 1995.64-33.
Forzano, L. B., Szuba, M., & Figurilli, J. M. (2003). Self-control and impulsiveness in children: Effects of visual food cues. The Psychological Record, 53(2), 161-175.
Forzano, L. B., Chelonis, J. J., Casey, C., Forward, M., Stachowiak, J. A., Wood, J. (2010). Self- control and impulsiveness in nondieting adult human females: Effects of visual food cues and food deprivation. The Psychological Record. 60(4):587.
Forzano, L. B., Michels, J. L., Carapella, R. K., Conway, P., & Chelonis, J. J. (2011). Self- control and impulsivity in children: Multiple behavioral measures. The Psychological Record, 6/, 425-448.
Forzano, L. B., Michels, J. L., Sorama, M., Etopio, A. L., & English, E. J. (2014). Self-Control and Impulsiveness in Adult Humans: Comparison of Qualitatively Different Consumable Reinforcers Using a New Methodology. The Psychological Record, 1-12.
Frost, R. O., Goolkasian, G. A., Ely, R. J., & Blanchard, F. A. (1982). Depression, restraint and eating behavior. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20(2), 113-121.
Geliebter, A., & Aversa, A. (2003). Emotional eating in overweight, normal weight, and underweight individuals. Eating Behaviors, 3(4), 341-347.
Greeno, C.G., & Wing, R.R. (1994). Stress-induced eating. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 444- 464.
Guerrieri, R., Nederkoorn, C., & Jansen, A. (2007). How impulsiveness and variety influence food intake in a sample of healthy women. Appetite, 48(1), 119-122.
Guerrieri, R., Nederkoorn, C., Stankiewicz, K., Alberts, H., Geschwind, N., Martijn, C., & Jansen, A. (2007). The influence of trait and induced state impulsivity on food intake in normal-weight healthy women. Appetite, 49(1), 66-73.
Heatherton, T. F., Herman, C. P., Polivy, J., King, G. A., & McGree, S. T. (1988). The (mis) measurement of restraint: An analysis of conceptual and psychometric issues. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(1), 19.
Harrison, A. A., Everitt, B., J., Robbins T., W. (1999). Central serotonin depletion impairs both the acquisition and performance of a symmetrically reinforced go/no-go conditional visual discrimination. Behav. Brain Res. 100:99–11.
Herman, C. P., & Polivy, J. (1975). Anxiety, restraint, and eating behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 84(6), 666.
Herman, C. P., & Polivy, J. (1980). Restrained eating. Obesity, 208-225.
Johnson, M. W., & Bickel, W. K. (2002). Within-subject comparison of real and hypothetical money rewards in delay discounting. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 77(2), 129.
Kirk, J. M., & Logue, A. W. (1997). Effects of deprivation level on humans' self-control for food reinforcers. Appetite, 28(3), 215-226.
Klonsky, E. D., & May, A. (2010). Rethinking impulsivity in suicide. Suicide and Life- Threatening Behavior, 40(6), 612-619.
Logue, A. W. (1995). Self-control: Waiting until tomorrow for what you want today. Prentice- Hall, Inc.
Logue, A. W. (1988). Research on self-control: An integrating framework. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11(04), 665-679.
Logue, A. W., & King, G. R. (1991). Self-control and impulsiveness in adult humans when food is the reinforcer. Appetite, 17(2), 105-120.
Logue, A. W., Pena-Correal, T. E., Rodriguez, M. L., & Kabela, E. (1986). Self-control in adult humans: Variation in positive reinforcer amount and delay. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 46, 159-173. doi:10. I 90I/jeab.1986.46-159.
Logue, A. W., King, G., Chavarro, A., & Volpe, J. (1990). Matching and maximizing in a self- control paradigm using human subjects. Learning and Motivation, 2/, 340-368.
doi:10.1016/0023-9690 (90)90013-E.
Lowe, M. R. (1993). The effects of dieting on eating behavior: a three-factor model. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 100.
Macht, M. (1999). Characteristics of eating in anger, fear, sadness and joy. Appetite, 33, 129- 139.
Masaki, D., Yokoyama, C., Kinoshita, S., Tsuchida, H., Nakatomi, Y., Yoshimoto, K., & Fukui, K. (2006). Relationship between limbic and cortical 5-HT neurotransmission and
acquisition and reversal learning in a go/no-go task in rats. Psychopharmacology, 189(2), 249-258.
Mazur, J. E. (1987). An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. Quantitative Analyses of Behavior, 5, 55-73.
Meguid, M. M., Fetissov, S. O., Varma, M., Sato, T., Zhang, L., Laviano, A., & Rossi-Fanelli, F. (2000). Hypothalamic dopamine and serotonin in the regulation of food intake. Nutrition, 16(10), 843-857.
Mitchell, S. H. (1999). Measures of impulsivity in cigarette smokers and non-smokers. Psychopharmacology, 146(4), 455-464.
Nolan, L. J., Halperin, L. B., & Geliebter, A. (2010). Emotional Appetite Questionnaire. Construct validity and relationship with BMI. Appetite, 54(2), 314-319.
Odum, A.L., Baumann, A.A.L., Rimington, D.D., 2006. Discounting of delayed hypothetical money and food: Effects of amount. Behavioral Processes, 73, 278-284.
Patel, K. A., & Schlundt, D. G. (2001). Impact of moods and social context on eating behavior. Appetite, 36(2), 111-118.
Pignatti, R., Bertella, L., Albani, G., Mauro, A., Molinari, E., & Semenza, C. (2006). Decision- making in obesity: A study using the Gambling Task. Eating and Weight Disorders- Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity, 11(3), 126-132.
Polivy, J., Heatherton, T. F., & Herman, C. P. (1988). Self-esteem, restraint, and eating behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 354.
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1976a). Clinical depression and weight change: A complex relation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85(3), 338.
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1976b). Effects of alcohol on eating behavior: Influence of mood and perceived intoxication. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85(6), 601.
Rachlin, H. (1995). The value of temporal patterns in behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 188-192.
Rachlin, H. & Green, L. (1972) Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 17, 15–22.
Rasmussen, E. B., Lawyer, S. R., & Reilly, W. (2010). Percent body fat is related to delay and probability discounting for food in humans. Behavioural Processes, 83(1), 23-30.
Reynolds, B., Richards, J. B., Horn, K., & Karraker, K. (2004). Delay discounting and probability discounting as related to cigarette smoking status in adults. Behavioural Processes, 65(1), 35-42.
Reynolds, B., Ortengren, A., Richards, J. B., & de Wit, H. (2006). Dimensions of impulsive behavior: Personality and behavioral measures. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 305-315.
Richards, J. B., Zhang, L., Mitchell, S. H., & de Wit, H. (1999). Delay or probability discounting in a model of impulsive behavior: Effect of alcohol. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 71,121–143.
Rosenhan, D. L., Salovey, P., & Hargis, K. (1981). The joys of helping: Focus of attention mediates the impact of positive affect on altruism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(5), 899.
Rozin, P. (1999). Food is fundamental, fun, frightening, and far-reaching. Social Research, 9-30. Schweighofer, N., Bertin, M., Shishida, K., Okamoto, Y., Tanaka, S. C., Yamawaki, S., & Doya,
K. (2008). Low-serotonin levels increase delayed reward discounting in humans. Neuroscience. 28:4528–4532.
Smith, C. L., & Hantula, D. A. (2008). Methodological considerations in the study of delay discounting in intertemporal choice: A comparison of tasks and modes. Behavior Research Methods, 40(4), 940-953.
Stöber, J. (1997). Trait anxiety and pessimistic appraisal of risk and chance. Personality and Individual Differences, 22(4), 465-476.
Stunkard, A. J., & Messick, S. (1985). The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 29(1), 71-83.
SUNY Brockport, Office of Research, Analysis & Planning, Enrollment by Race and Ethnicity, Fall 2014. Available from http://www.brockport.edu/ir/Race.html.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, Healthy Weight Tools: BMI Calculator. Available from
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/educational/lose_wt/BMI/bmicalc.htm.
van Strien, T., Frijters, J. E., Bergers, G. P., & Defares, P. B. (1986). The Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) for assessment of restrained, emotional, and external eating behavior. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 5, 295-315.
Västfjäll, D. (2002). Emotion induction through music: A review of the musical mood induction procedure. Musicae Scientiae, 5(1 suppl), 173-211.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063.
Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 219-235. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219
Weller, R. E., Cook, E. W., Avsar, K. B., & Cox, J. E. (2008). Obese women show greater delay discounting than healthy-weight women. Appetite, 51(3), 563-569.
Willner, P., Benton, D., Brown, E., Cheeta, S., Davies, G., Morgan, J., & Morgan, M. (1998). “Depression” increases “craving” for sweet rewards in animal and human models of depression and craving. Psychopharmacology, 136(3), 272-283.
Wood, J. V., Saltzberg, J. A., & Goldsamt, L. A. (1990). Does affect induce self-focused attention?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(5), 899.
Yeomans, M.R., & Coughlan, E. (2009). Mood-induced eating. Interactive effects of restraint and tendency to overeat. Appetite, 52, 290-298.
Appendix A: Consent Form- Questionnaire
Consent Form
The purpose of this research project is to examine individual choices when faced with varying amounts of food, offered at varying times. This research project is being conducted in order to meet an Honor’s Program requirement in the Department of Psychology at the College at Brockport, SUNY.
In order to participate in this prescreening study, your informed consent is required. If you would like to participate in this prescreening, and agree with the statements below, please click
“Continue” at the bottom of this page. You may change your mind at any time, even after the survey has begun.
I understand that:
1. My participation is voluntary, and I have the right to refuse to answer any questions. 2. Due to the online administration of this survey and the nature of the internet, complete
confidentiality cannot be guaranteed. The researcher will be able to connect my name with my survey responses temporarily if I am chosen to participate in a future study. If any publication results from this research, I will not be identified by name.
3. I will receive one research credit for my PSH 110 class. There will be minimal risks of time to participate in this project. In addition, if I have any concern regarding my responses to questions on the survey, I can contact the Counseling Center at 395-2207. 4. My participation involves taking a 26 question survey on the computer. It is estimated
that it will take 10 minutes to complete the survey.
5. Approximately 300 people will take part in this prescreening. My responses will determine whether I am contacted for another study. The results will be used for the completion of an Honors thesis by the primary researcher.
6. Data will be kept in the faculty advisor’s locked laboratory on a password protected computer. Data and consent forms will be destroyed by shredding when the research has been accepted and approved.
I am 18 years of age or older. I have read and understand the above statements. All my questions about my participation in this study have been answered to my satisfaction. I agree to participate in the study realizing I may withdraw without penalty at any time during the survey process. Clicking “Continue” on this page indicates my consent to participate in this prescreening. If you have any questions you may contact:
Primary researcher:
Madeleine Albano, [email protected], (631)766-2512 Faculty Advisor:
Dr. L. B. Forzano, Psychology Department, [email protected], (585) 395-2759
Continue
Appendix B: Screening Questionnaire Gender: Age: Height: Weight: Date of birth: Eye color:
For each statement, please indicate how often you have felt this way recently by selecting the option you most agree with.
1. My appetite was poor.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 2. I could not shake off the blues. -Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks.
3. I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing. -Not at all or less than 1 day last week.
-One or two days last week. -Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 4. I felt depressed.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 5. My sleep was restless.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week.
-One or two days last week. -Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 6. I felt sad.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 7. I could not get going.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 8. Nothing made me happy.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 9. I felt like a bad person.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 10. I lost interest in my usual activities. -Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 11. I slept much more than usual. -Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week.
-Nearly every day for two weeks.
12. I felt like I was moving too slowly. -Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 13. I felt fidgety.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 14. I wished I were dead.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 15. I wanted to hurt myself.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 16. I was tired all the time.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.
-Three to four days last week. -Five to seven days last week. -Nearly every day for two weeks. 17. I did not like myself.
-Not at all or less than 1 day last week. -One or two days last week.