Dual-encoding is the process of using two or more learning pathways at one time to retain and retrieve information more efficiently. The concept of dual-encoding is vital in today's classroom where an increasing emphasis on tested material takes time away from less emphasized subjects, such as social studies. History and it's strong use of texts in pedagogical style is ideal for the verbal function of dual-encoding and geography, with its emphasis on maps and graphicacy, fulfills the non-verbal requirement. With many different learning styles and rates present amongst the students in a classroom, it is important to take into account all levels of student ability; dual-encoding assists with this process by increasing the number of cognitive learning pathways.
After defining the use of dual-encoding and how it works with cross-curricular lesson planning, research was sought out on how to incorporate significant, practical, and useful teaching ideas that correspond with dual-encoding. The thought process behind the production of these lessons is that learning is as much about foundational knowledge content as it is about application. Bloom's Taxonomy (1956) of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation was heavily relied upon (Figure 4.3), as well as Fink's Taxonomy (2003) of integration, application, human dimension, caring, learning to learn, and foundational knowledge (Figure 4.4).
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Figure 4.3 Bloom’sTaxonomy(Source: Louisiana State University, 2010)
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The use of literacy skills, such as reading, writing, and oral communication to enhance learning is always beneficial, and history and geography provide students many opportunities to incorporate and practice these abilities (Krajcik 2010). Students must always be aware of the established learning goals; learning flourishes when it is holistic and involves the student in an active manner, this includes sharing information, ideas, experiences, and reflections (Fink 2003). The lessons strive to make clear the learning outcomes and expectations of the activities to all teachers and students. Clearly, many varying skills and ideas were taken into account when these lessons were developed.
The lesson plans were written using a modified version of backwards design by Wiggins and McTighe (1998). General principles of backwards design are: use learning goals to create significant learning, build activities that address and relate to how students learn, promote active learning, and assess what students have learned to demonstrate completion and success (Fink 2003). Backwards design takes into consideration student interests, student cognitive and developmental level, and previous knowledge and achievement. It focuses on using curriculum as a means to an end by focusing on a particular topic, resource, and instructional method (Wiggins and McTighe 1998). Backwards design is best known for its format of placing the material to be assessed at the beginning of each lesson. The creators of backwards design agree and cater to the idea that teachers and students will learn more if they know what their learning goals are from the beginning.
Modifications for the purpose of this study directly affected the listing of learning goals and exam-tested objectives at the start of each lesson plan. Because one of the goals of these unit plans is the flexibility to fit into any classroom at any time, no exams were created; rather the lessons were prepared with the anticipation of teachers matching these lessons with other
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units and activities they already use in their classroom. However, to stick with the backwards design principles, a specific listing of the objectives and target knowledge of the lesson to be assessed were first listed. The learning goals and the knowledge to be assessed from each lesson plan are multi-tiered and range from applying to the entire unit down to the individual lesson. These learning goals are addressed through the unit essential question, overview, concepts, purpose, and lesson essential questions (Figure 4.5). Establishment and documentation of these learning goals demonstrates how backwards design was applied to the methods of this study.
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Following the completion of a first draft of a unit plan, a Kansas Geographic Alliance Teacher Consultant, Judy Dollard, provided constructive feedback on the unit lesson plan and design. Judy’s review and suggestions were vital to the improvement of the overall effort. Four items were central to the structural development of these dual-encoded unit plans: 1) identification process of the usefulness of dual-encoding for educational purposes, 2) the use of Bloom's taxonomy and 3) Fink's taxonomy for more reflective lessons, and 4) the modification of backwards design. These unit plans are accommodating for any classroom and were specifically designed that way. Collectively the five unit plans provide between thirty and 63 forty-five minute class periods of material (Table 4.1). The process of identifying the usefulness of dual-encoding in teaching and creating unit and lesson plans that have dual-encoded geography concepts and skills with history tested standards addresses research objectives two and three: prepare a teachable rationale for dual-encoding and create lesson plans that can be used to demonstrate the value of dual-encoding.
62 Classroom Time Needed by Lesson Plan
Unit and Lesson Plan Name Time Needed
Settlement and Transportation
1) Making a Pathway: The Railroad Had To Go Somewhere
2) Changing Life in a Kansas Railroad Town
3) Real Life Cowboy in a Cattle Town 4) Technology Brings Change
5-12 forty-five minute class periods
Settlement and Migration 1) Where Would You Go? 2) Population Changes
3) Different Cultures, Different Places 4) Travel Log
7-14 forty-five minute class periods
Native Americans in Kansas 1) Our Class Tribe 2) Explorers Write Home 3) Moving On Out
4) Adaptation and Assimilation
5-10 forty-five minute class periods
Kansas in the Civil War
1) Forming a Sphere of Influence 2) Tracking the Underground Railroad 3) Symbol of Freedom
4) It Happened Over Time
6-14 forty-five minute class periods
Westward Expansion
1) Significant Legislation 2) Panel Discussions 3) GeoDiary
4) Romantic or Civilized
7-13 forty-five minute class periods
Table 4.1Classroom Time Needed for Each Lesson Plan (Source: Created by author)