Credibility

Creswell (2007: 207) defines credibility as the truth value. It is a test to whether the study is authentic. Credibility of a study can be assessed by evaluating the data collected, the analysis and the conclusions that are made.

One strategy of checking for credibility is what is referred to as triangulation or crystallisation. Triangulation is a technique that emerged as a response to criticism of qualitative approaches from positivist researchers, particularly the charge that such approaches lack appropriate validity (Cohen, et al., 2007: 141). The concept draws on the metaphor from surveying and navigating, where a single unknown location is found at the point where the trajectories from three known locations meet. Hemming (2008: 154) and Creswell (2007: 208) explain that under crystallisation, methods of data collection are mixed. Using multiple sources of data and the number of participants could improve the credibility of research findings by directing a range of different methods at the same problem and checking whether or not they all returned similar results (Boblin, Ireland, Kirkpatrick & Robertson, 2013: 4 & Hemming, 2008: 156). Triangulation can assist the researcher in identifying both convergence and divergence in the emerging data. This study used a number of methods to collect data. These included interviews, focus group discussions, document analysis and open-ended questionnaires. These different methods provided strength to the study.

Member checking was another strategy which helped to make the study credible. According to Boblin, et al., (2013: 4) and Punch (1998: 260), member checking involves taking data and interpretations back to the participants so that they can

confirm the credibility of the information in the transcript. The scripts were sent to some participants to confirm information. Some of them made adjustments to the scripts. The researched data was equally recorded on a digital recorder and the field notes complemented the capture of non-verbal data from the participants. The recordings were listened to repeatedly to ensure that the transcripts were correct. Another strategy used to ensure credibility is the prolonged engagement and persistent observation of participants in the field (Creswell, 2007: 207). This helps to create trust between the researcher and the participants and helps the researcher to get greater understanding of the context and allow for checking for misinformation. The more time the researcher spends, the more experience he or she gains and the more chances there are of collecting accurate and valid data. In this study, the researcher remained in the field conducting interviews particularly at the university and the teacher training college.

4.5.2 Transferability

In a qualitative study, external validity is concerned with the degree to which the results can be generalised to other settings with similar population. Qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalise findings because the context of cases differs in which qualitative studies are conducted and unique thereby making generalisation a challenge (Yin, 2002: 36-37). However, to overcome this challenge, the inquirer needs to select representative cases to include in the qualitative study. Further, Yin (2003) cited in Creswell, et al. (2007: 245) states that a multiple-case design uses the logic of replication where the procedures are replicated for each case. Case studies are best generalised to a theory where the results of the findings are analysed in terms of a broader theory to see how well they fit.

Transferability can also be achieved if the researcher provides thick, detailed descriptions about the research processes, the relationship between researcher and participants. This way, readers can decide whether the findings can be generalised in other contexts (Morrow, 2005: 252). This study endeavoured to meet this criterion of transferability by including three schools for learners with visual impairments and also by checking the findings with the university students who have been learners in

these schools before. Further, the teacher trainers and curriculum development specialists as participants strengthened the findings for possible generalisation to other contexts with detailed descriptions of the processes involved in the research and enhanced transferability of the findings.

4.5.3 Dependability

The term dependability is used in qualitative research to refer to reliability. In qualitative inquiry researchers must endeavour to enable future researchers repeat their study (Shenton, 2004: 63). Dependability is an instrument of maintaining quality achieved through detailed reporting at all the stages in the entire process of research from data collection through analysis to interpretation (Yin, 2009: 45). Dependability and confirmability can be established through an auditing of the research process (Creswell, 2007: 204). Thus, in this study the researcher gave the research report to a senior researcher in qualitative research to give comments about the major processes in a qualitative inquiry which the study followed and documented. This audit was used to supplement the feedback and comments from the researchers’ promoter.

4.5.6 Confirmability

Morrow (2005: 252) elaborated that confirmability is based on the perspective that integrity of a study is dependent on how the researcher puts together the data from the analysis process and the results of the study to make it easy for the reader to confirm that the findings are adequate. One way of ensuring confirmability is through a process known as audit trail. In this study, the researcher’s processes were availed to the other researchers for purposes of examination and confirmation. Shenton (2004: 71) affirms that we can ensure confirmability through triangulation of data sources. This study collected data from different sources. These included the teacher trainers, curriculum specialists and teachers, students in the university and learners in the schools. In addition, multiple data collection methods were engaged such as interviews, focus group discussion, open ended questionnaires and

document analysis. The researcher also enhanced confirmability through member checking.

4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Ethical issues arise in both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Research scholars like Hatch (2002: 66) and Creswell (2007: 170) have advised that researchers must take measures to protect participants in research from any kind of harm or loss of dignity. In this study the first step was to obtain ethical clearance from the University of South Africa. Permission was further obtained from the Ministry of Education in Zambia to conduct research in government institutions. This study adhered to the following ethical issues.

The researcher explained to the participants the procedures and objectives of the research and obtained permission from them to have interviews audio recorded. The participants were informed of confidentiality and assured them that the information they would give was going to be used for academic purposes only. The real names of the participants were not to be used in the final report or any scripts which were generated from the data; instead, identification codes would be used so that the information given would not be directly linked to them.

Participants in the study were engaged on voluntary basis. None were forced or coerced into taking part in the study and they were informed that they were free to withdraw from participating without justification. The researcher obtained written consent from participants to participate in the study. For the participants below the age of eighteen, parental consent was obtained. In as much as qualitative research intrudes in the lives of the participants, the researcher respected the privacy of the participants by conducting interviews in neutral places and endeavoured to ask questions that did not bring emotional or psychological harm to the participants.

4.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter presented the methodologies of the study. The selection of qualitative approach and case study design was accounted for. The chapter also gave details of

the participants in the study and the specific research sites. The primary research participants are learners with visual impairments in the special schools and universities and their teachers. in addition to these students with visual impairments, teacher trainers for teachers of learners with visual impairments and curriculum development specialists were sources of data. The methods of data collection have also been described in detail. The methods were interviews, questionnaires, focus group discussions and documents. In this chapter, issues of validity and reliability have been conceptualised as they relate to qualitative research. The equivalent terms credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability as used in qualitative research have been given and how these relate in order to enhance trustworthiness of the study.

Finally, a detailed account of how this research upheld ethical issues in research was presented. The ethical procedures adhered to related to UNISA research ethics policy. The researcher has given an account of how matters dealing with confidentiality, informed consent and anonymity were applied to ensure that the dignity of the participants was upheld.

CHAPTER 5

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the main findings from the study. The first part gives biographical information of participants. The section on findings follows and is presented according to themes which emerged from data gathered from all respondents. The findings are supported by many verbatim quotations from respondents. Each presentation is followed by a discussion of the findings. The theoretical framework and the researcher reflections will shed light to the discussion.