CRIME SCRIPT ANALYSIS

In order to investigate the structure of Southeast Asian drug trafficking groups in Australia, it is necessary to firstly characterise and describe the stages involved in drug production, importation and distribution. This process of description will also include the various roles that individual members will adopt in a drug trafficking operation. By outlining the stages involved in drug trafficking, this information will act as a point of reference and comparison for characterising the processes and individual roles in drug trafficking operations found in the data.

Crime script analysis is a tool used to generate, organise and systematise knowledge about the procedural aspects and requirements of crime commission (Morselli 2009, 104; Cornish 1994, 160). The crime script represents a sequence of decisions and actions before, during and after the commission of a crime (Beauregard et al. 2007, 1071). The script is comprised of “scenes” which represent the episodes or steps taken to commit the crime (Morselli 2009, 104). The level of “permutation”

in a script represents the degree of flexibility in the process of crime commission (Morselli 2009, 104). If there are multiple crime commission routes to the same outcome, the crime script has a high degree of permutation (Morselli 2009, 104;

Cornish 1994, 173). Crime scripts on drug trafficking are expected to have a high degree of permutation because it is likely that there are multiple methods of importing and distributing drugs. Flexibility is vital in a drug trafficking operation, especially considering the inherent risks involved in carrying out such an operation.

The following crime script analysis of heroin importation and distribution will only briefly cover the production phase as the importation and distribution phases are the key scenes to understanding the nature of heroin trafficking within Australia.

At the production phase, heroin is primarily produced in the Kokang and Wa areas in Burma (Chin 2009, 87). A number of growers, including peasants and tribesmen, are responsible for maintaining and harvesting the opium fields (McCoy 1972, 9). Raw opium is transported to clandestine heroin labs where it is refined into morphine and then manufactured into heroin through a series of extractions using particular acids and substances (McCoy 1972, 12). The process of manufacturing heroin usually involves “underworld” chemists and their apprentices (McCoy 1972, 12). Following this process, the heroin is packaged in preparation for importation to various heroin markets overseas. A buyer from the drug trafficking group will negotiate the cost of purchasing heroin from these processing labs. This stage is also likely to involve a broker who will act as a ‘go-between’ for the drug trafficking organisers/leader and the contact in the source country. Heroin from the Golden Triangle reaches the world market via two routes – the Thai route and the Chinese route (Chin 2009, 105). For border detections in Australia, the main embarkation points for heroin were South Africa, Pakistan and several countries in Southeast Asia including Cambodia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos (ACC 2009b, 48).

Parcel post is the primary method used to import heroin as well as air cargo stream, air passengers and sea cargo stream which was used in limited cases (ACC 2009b, 47; ACC 2008, 52). Each of these methods requires a different set of personnel to carry out the importation. Investors, who are part of the drug trafficking group or are external to the group, will usually provide funds for each drug shipment.

Parcel post and air cargo importations usually adopt the “scatter methodology”

which means transporting a large number of drugs progressively but in low quantities (ACC 2008, 50). For parcel post, it is likely that there is a contact in the source

country who posted drugs to a contact/s in the destination country (Australia). The contact in Australia would employ ‘runners’ to distribute the drugs. For air cargo stream, pilots are employed to transport the drugs and it is likely that these pilots also work in legitimate businesses (Decker and Chapman 2008, 92). Once the drugs arrive at the destination, a number of offloaders would remove the drugs from the aircraft and move the drugs to another mode of transportation or provide storage for the drugs (Decker and Chapman 2008, 90). The process of offloading the drugs will occur in a remote location specified by an organiser of the operation. The decision to choose a particular location is usually based on the fact that a port either has little traffic passing through or has so much traffic that cargo inspections are rare or haphazard. In sea cargo operations, boat captains are hired to transport the drugs and also to build secret compartments within the boat to conceal the drug shipment (Decker and Chapman 2008, 91). Again, offloaders would be available to remove the drugs from the boat.

For air passengers (couriers or mules), the most common forms of drug concealment are body packing, ingesting drug capsules or having a secret compartment in luggage (ACC 2008, 52). Couriers are hired by recruiters of the drug trafficking group (Kenney 2007b, 33). Prior to arriving at their destination, couriers are likely to meet different personnel who will assist in helping them ingest the drugs, conceal them on their body or in luggage and train them on the process of carrying drugs into the destination country. Firstly, a packer will compress the drugs into a digestible form (capsules) or package them in some manner which enables the drugs to be “body packed” or concealed in luggage (Kenney 2007b, 33). Secondly, a trainer will prepare the couriers in swallowing drug capsules or packing the drugs on

their body or within their luggage (Kenney 2007b, 33). The couriers may also be advised on how to deal with airport security or how to avoid attention from law enforcement once they arrive at their destination. When the courier reaches the destination, they are usually contacted by the person who hired them to transport the drugs or told to meet a receiver belonging to the drug trafficking operation for handover (Kenney 2007b, 33). It is important to acknowledge that these procedures for transporting drugs may be entirely overlooked by some drug trafficking groups.

Some couriers may simply be given a quantity of drugs to place in their luggage, without having had any prior training or knowledge on how to conceal the drugs.

The method of drug distribution in Australia will vary across different groups and operations. Once the drugs reach Australia, receivers distribute the drugs in large, per-kilo quantities amongst wholesale distributors (Kenney 2007b, 33). The process of distribution may involve wholesale distributors and dealers organising multiple trips to other cities to access high level drug suppliers. These high-level suppliers are most likely found in Sydney and Melbourne. Generally, the drug is usually “cut” with other substances known as cutting agents before it is re-packaged into “bags”² in preparation for street selling (DEA 2005, 22). The drug user does not purchase drugs from a producer but are connected to producers through a distribution chain with multiple layers (Caulkins, Gurga and Little 2009, 94). The drug is cut multiple times and passed through a half dozen or more cycles in a drug distribution chain before reaching the drug user (Caulkins, Gurga and Little 2009, 94). This process has the effect of increasing the drug’s quantity and the overall profits obtained from street selling, but significantly reducing its purity.

2 “Bag” is slang for a small unit of heroin sold on the street.

Table 5 illustrates the different scenes and actors involved in heroin production, importation and distribution:

Table 5: Crime script of heroin production, importation and distribution

Scene Script action/s Actors

Production Growing and harvesting

Air cargo

how to deal with

Distribution Drugs are distributed in kilo or multi-kilo

The crime script analysis of heroin production, importation and distribution provides a sequence of actions performed by different members involved in a drug trafficking operation. The level of sophistication and preparation required at each stage may vary significantly between drug trafficking groups. Some drug trafficking groups may deviate from these standard set of procedures and factors which may impact on these standards include changes to the source country or changes to Australian law enforcement responses to heroin trafficking. Furthermore, there are likely to be some drug trafficking groups who operate on an ad hoc basis and will have no set procedures for carrying out their drug trafficking operations. However, the crime script analysis will be used to help clarify the information obtained from the drug trafficking cases. Thus, the utility of crime script analysis is that it enables researchers to identify both the common and unique factors between different drug trafficking operations.

2.7 ORGANISED CRIME MODELS AND DRUG TRAFFICKING