Cross-cultural training content and method

After the determination of training needs and the statement of the specific goals, considerations concerning content and method are the further step for CCT design. The instructional method and the content, both determined to achieve the training goals and meet the organizational, individual and assignment needs, are strictly connected and often interdependent.

As Bennet et al. (2000) point out, CCT programmes need to be well designed and consistent with the company’s strategies and the organizational culture. Training is better when customized and content and delivery methods coherent with the needs and the goals of the individual and of the organization. In order to maximize the company’s return on investment in costly overseas assignments, expatriates are used to contribute to the organization global competitiveness mainly through the development of both individual and organizational competencies. To achieve such cross-national competencies CCT programmes should be tailored to support assignees in their performance, providing assistance in personal and professional transition; in their adjustment, helping expatriates to manage cultural distance; and in the organizational development, supporting the management of professional responsibilities. Furthermore, training should focus on another fundamental success factor, which is the ability to build trusting and respectful relationships, indispensable element of partnerships and alliances (Bennet et al. 2000).

In order to develop those skills necessary to cope with an unfamiliar setting, instructional content should include notions highlighting the influence culture has on human behaviour, the knowledge necessary for survival and possibly success in a foreign environment and the emotional challenges that an assignee is likely to face (Brewster and Pickard, 1994). According to research (Brislin & Yoshida 1994; Kohls & Brussow, 1995, Briscoe et al. 2011) and practitioners’ experience, it is possible to identify a set of basic topics that a training programme should cover at minimum. Intercultural business skills, general and country-specific cultural awareness, practical approaches to culture-shock management, lifestyle adjustment, international transition and stress management are some examples.

Harrison (1994) on the other hand, focus on the most appropriate content structure based on both a general and a specific cultural orientation. General cultural orientation is necessary to identify the elements that possibly affect one’s receptiveness to the training programme (e.g. resistance to change, ability to manage stress, understanding of purpose and values). Specific cultural orientation aims at the expatriates understanding of a specific culture, including appropriate cultural behaviours, customs, norms, diversity etc.

Gertsen (1990) made a similar distinction concerning training orientation, distinguishing general orientation, focused on the notion of culture, and specific orientation, which considers one particular culture. Furthermore, she identifies a conventional and an experimental form of training. The first is associated with schools and universities where knowledge and information are conveyed through a unidirectional communication. The latter consists instead of a participative kind of training where the trainee is involved in the simulation of real life situations. Thus, by combining these dimensions, four categories of training method emerge: general experimental training, general conventional training, specific experimental training, specific conventional training.

A variant of this view is the categorization proposed by Gudykunst, Guzley & Hammer (1996), who suggest CCT methodologies based on a didactic or experiential learning approach, and on a culture-general or culture-specific content of training. The discussion of content issues results similar to the one above-mentioned; however, the study proposes a further insight concerning the learning approach. The didactic approach is based on a

cognitive understanding of a culture and is practically delivered thorough lectures, seminars, reading material, orientation briefings and case studies. The experiential approach instead lays its foundations on the assumption that individuals learn best from their experiences; therefore, it is usually conveyed through role playing, look-see trips, in-country cultural coaching and immersion programmes.

Due to the variety of ways an expatriate can be trained, a set of theory-based frameworks have been progressively developed for the selection of the appropriate CCT method.

Some situational and contextual factors have been identified, as well as their practical implications in the choice of training method. Brislin (1979) identifies three techniques that can be adopted in cross-cultural training: cognitive, affective and behavioural. The cognitive approach consists in the use of non-participative sessions or conferences for the provision of information on a foreign culture environment. The affective method involves individual reactions for the participants to learn how to deal with critical cultural episodes.

The behavioural approach aims at the improvement of the trainee’s communication style and the development of positive interactions with the host nationals.

A number of researchers have re-elaborated Brislin’s model adding situational variables that might be considered as useful guidelines for determining and appropriate programme.

Tung (1982) focuses on training rigor, meaning the extent of effort required by both trainees and trainers to prepare the trainees for expatriate positions. According to her studies, the level of training rigor depends on the degree of interaction expected between the individual and the members of the host culture and on the degree of dissimilarity between the home and host culture. Mendenhall, Dunbar and Oddou (1987) incrementing Tung’s model, suggest that training methods, levels of training rigor and duration of the training should be correspondent to the degree of interaction expected in the international assignment and to the level of culture novelty, recalling the importance of cultural distance. Black et al. (1992) position is linear with the previous ones; their model of cross-cultural training in fact builds around the above-mentioned contextual and situational factors, adding the function and role of the managers as further element to consider.

On the other hand, Ronen (1989) and Black et al. (1992) pay attention to the individual variables, specifically personal learning objectives and the degree of active participation, which may shift the priorities of the training programme and the correspondent suitable approach. Consistently, Black and Mendenhall (1989) focus on expectations, motivations and incentives to apply learned behaviour in the host country and highlight how these individual factors affect the different aspects of learning process: attention, retention, reproduction (Bandura, 1977). The main aspects of learning theories will be further analysed related to the effectiveness of training programmes.