"No hard and fast criteria can be laid down for the functions, tasks, staffing, accommodation or equipment. Each operation will build from a nucleus as the factors dictate. "
- LEE [ 1 2 1 , SECTION 106]
In particular, when organizing a SAR operation, the following must be considered: • type of incident and available information;
• level of urgency and subsequent priorities;
• weather and climatic conditions, and weather forecast;
• terrain - including access, and any features which require specialist skills or equip
ment eg., caves, rivers, swamps or cliffs;
• available search time and search resources;
• the definition of a primary search area and the segmentation of this into search regions;
• the allocation of search resources and, in particular, the type of search techniques
to utilize;
• search base location, transport, food and equipment; and
• communications.
We now examine the details of these search considerations.
39
3 . 1 New Zealand SAR Organization
In New Zealand, SAR is divided into three classes, dependent upon the seriousness and scale of the search operation. Class One searches are Police controlled and employ only Police resources. Class Two searches are managed as a combined effort between the Police and civilians. Class Three searches cover wide areas and usually involve missing craft such as boats and planes. This class of search is coordinated by the centralized National Rescue Co-ordination Centre, and involves the military working alongside civilians.
The New Zealand Search and Rescue organization was officially set up in 1948 [99].
Currently land SAR in New Zealand is coordinated by the New Zealand Land Search and Rescue network. This network is comprised of police, Department of Conservation (DOC) staff, and mountain and caving experts [1 15]. Jack McConchie [50, page iii], Convenor of the New Zealand Land SAR Committee, reports that:
"Search and Rescue in New Zealand is internationally unique in that it op erates entirely in the absence of full-time paid professionals involved solely in SAR. The fact is that the population and financial base are too small to support a 'professional' system, and a 'centralized unit' could not effec tively cover the wide area and diverse terrain. The real strength of the 'New Zealand system' is its ability to call, from a wide range of skills in the com munity, those that are needed for a particular operation. It is however not a club or organization, but a collection of individuals who apply their skills "in the best interest of the victim. " "
However, Martin [115, section Cl] reports on "a fragmented rescue system heavily reliant on volunteers" with only the Police and Defence Departments, and the Civil A vi ation Authority receiving government funding. This problem was highlighted in January 1997 when DOC, which had previously received government funding, had this source of finance removed and consequently removed their SAR services. (Although DOC staff may still participate in SAR operations in a volunteer capacity.) Statistics gathered from New Zealand SAR operations [122] indicate the high utilization of volunteer search resources and the low proportion of paid reimbursement. This is evident from Table 3.1.
Financial grants are given to community-based SAR teams by the police, but as these are non-representative of the full costs of an operation, these teams struggle. This is highlighted by Martin, where the rescue of a lost and sick tramper in one region cost $13000, $3000 more than their Police grant for a full year. When there is a chance that a lost person may still be alive, however, no real monetary restrictions exist in attempting to rescue them in time [165] .
3.2. Urgency 41
Table
3.1:
The utilization of volunteers in NZ land SAR operations.1997/98
Number
2858(64%)
3954(68%)
3139(65%)
2829(68%)
2108(63%)
Hours
21669(53%) 22011(69%)
15812(63%)
20147(66%)
14368(54%)
Payment
$38 363(2%)
$8 388« 1%)
$1 748« 1%)
$2 921« 1%)
$40« 1%)
3.2 Urgency
SAR differs from some other operations in being "time critical" , with the strength of the response being related to the perceived urgency of the situation. A statement on urgency is somewhat subjective and La Valla and Stoffel
[103,
page13]
consider it often difficult to justify "because a certain percentage of lost people, if left on their own, would survive and walk out." Marin County Sheriff's Department SAR team[114]
point out that "time and weather may well make any search an emergency as they destroy clues."Swombow
[158,
page28]
expresses the need for "documented analysis of the deter mination of search urgency which will stand up to later scrutiny." Meeting this need is a system devised by Wade[86]
which assigns a quantitative value to measure relative urgency. This is achieved by working through an urgency chart which assigns specific values to such attributes as the subject's age, medical condition, experience, equipment carried, number in the group, terrain hazards, area incident history, 'bastard search' , 1and weather conditions. These values are then added together and different levels of re sponse are actioned depending on the sum attained. This method provides a defendable approach, which clarifies a decision that can otherwise be influenced by external factors, especially when conducted under pressure. It has been trialled in New Zealand and found to be particularly helpful in deciding upon initial actions
[42].
3.2. 1 Initial Response
The initial response calls upon available local search resources as the situation requires. In New Zealand, lists of available personnel are maintained with their fitness, skill and leadership rating, and contact number
[165].
Volunteers can often be contacted at work, resulting in a good response time, although it is difficult to initiate searches during commuter hours in the larger cities. A shortage of resources is not usually encountered as resources from other centres can be called in. Currently there is a move towards having smaller, highly trained teams with resourcing from nearby centres, if necessary.Additionally there exists the objective that, by the year
2000,
all searchers within New Zealand will be trained in clue awareness and be of similar ability and skill[81].
3 . 3 Definition of the Search Area
An initial search area, or possibility area
[150],
is found by deciding upon the potential maximum distance that the subject may have covered. The distance covered is calculated with respect to the length of time which the subject has been missing, and their estimated search speed as impacted by the terrain, weather and light[155].
This decision involves a number of other considerations including lost subject behaviour patterns, natural terrain barriers, any clues that may have been found, the search history of the region, significant features such as sources of water or shelter, and a profile of the subject that includes any physical and mental limitations. The decision will involve a certain amount of 'gut feeling' and deductive reasoning as a management team, and will lead into discussion on possible POA values. The search area should also include the subject's home, in order to search for clues and to ensure that they do not return there unknown to searchers. The search area is then divided into search regions for physical searching. Particular division techniques are discussed in detail in Chapter8.
La Valla and Stoffel
[103]
state that the chance of success of the search is directly related to the size of the search area - a smaller area being significantly easier to search. To aid in this, confinement tactics are used - although this may not be possible in every instance. Such tactics establish a search perimeter by using road or trail blocks, track traps,2 lines of string with attached arrows indicating the direction of help, and personnel positioned at observation points or camping at particular spots within the search area, such as streams. Decisions must necessarily be made as to whether resources would be better used in constricting the search area or in actively searching.If the search area is large and not enough information exists on the possible locations or intentions of the subject, then a search will not be mounted until more information becomes available. Police will alert the public to the disappearance and anybody going into that particular area will be asked to keep an eye open for the subject, or signs of them
[165].
Keane
[96]
emphasizes the need to base search planning on more than just information but also on search intelligence. He states that what is required is a"method to acquire, compile, verify, analyse and disseminate information about the subject, the events surrounding the search and the natural factors present in the search area."
3.4. Search Base Location 43
Misinformation and disinformation should be avoided or detected if at all possible. This involves evaluating both the sources and information received.
Information which is identified and processed in planning the search operation in cludes
[103]:
• subject profile - age, physical and mental condition, experience, personality, equip ment and clothing worn;
• position where the subject was last seen (PLS);
• circumstances triggering the alert, eg., amount of time over-due; • alternative trip plans;
• weather;
• terrain analysis eg. , barriers, confusion factors, vicinity to civilization, possible
short cuts and hazards; and
• available resources.
Much of this information gathering requires an initial interview with friends and family of the subject, and any eyewitnesses. Such investigation continues throughout the entirety of the operation until the subject is found or the operation is suspended.
Interactive subject profiles need to be considered when more that one lost person are involved. The person with the dominant personality is likely to affect the others' decisions and possible actions. Swombow
[157,
page67]
introduces the notion of a changing subject profile when it is realized that "another person is influencing or controlling the movements of the missing person" , as would be seen in an abduction case. Here the subject profile of the abductor is the key factor for search planning rather than the subject profile of the victim.3 . 4 Search Base Location
The search operation is coordinated from a central base, and standby personnel are both based and deployed from there. The location of the search base should be chosen with consideration to the terrain, accessibility, communication transmission, distance to the search area and the closest water supply.
Gallas
[66]
states that a permanent building for a search base location is preferable, if available, and that use of Police or Armed Forces command vehicles may serve wellas part of the search base in the field. Gallas states that sub-bases3 may be a necessity when searching a topographically divided region. He gives as an example a mountain range which is simultaneously searched from both sides.
3 . 5 Search Resources
A search requires "cooperation and coordination among diverse multi-skilled responders" [103J with a commonality of purpose. Each type of initial response team has its advan tages and should be applied to the areas that best suit its expertise. Before assigning resources to the field, their capability and training must be assessed to ensure that they are safely and efficiently matched to their tasks, and that those tasks are well defined. Search resources are pulled out of the search area if adverse conditions arise.
Syrotuck [159J states that there is often a need for compromise due to fewer resource numbers available than what would be optimal. Such compromise usually impacts the size of the search area, POD, time and quality of coverage.
3 . 5 . 1 Search and Rescue Personnel
Within the New Zealand Police Department are police personnel who are Police SAR Squad members. These members are called to assist volunteers in SAR operations which arise in their district. The person coordinating the New Zealand SAR operation at the search area, is titled the Field Controller. The Field Controller manages the physical SAR operation with advice and assistance from a local civilian expert, a SAR advisor. They are responsible for [50J:
• defining search objectives and urgency;
• defining the search area and the search base location;
• prioritizing the search area into regions for searching, and the search method to be
employed;
• defining the searcher resources required, both in number and skill requirements; • determining search backup and supplies;
• coordinating search tasks of the search teams with constant reassessment of the
situation;
• determining communication schedules for teams;
3Sub-bases, alternatively termed spike camps or semi-fixed bases [103], are smaller bases designed to service a portion of search personnel located in a set area.
3 . 5 . Search Resources 45
• communication with the Police Search Controller; • recommending search suspension; and
• conducting debriefing at the search conclusion.
In the New Zealand environment searchers are initially fairly independent in their decision-making; given an area to search, they can make judgment calls as to how they will search it. This independence moves to a greater dependence upon the search manager as the search progresses [165].
Syrotuck [159, page 5] states that of all search resources, people are the ones that are
"least affected by external factors . . . they can search in most weather condi tions and terrain and are not influenced by the colour of the victim's clothes. Furthermore, they are the most available resource across the country."
Searchers should have a high degree of fitness and competence in the bush with Sweere
[156] extending this to the requirement that
"All searchers entering the search area must be prepared to survive on their own, search for the lost subject, navigate over varied terrain, communicate with other searchers, direct assistance to (their) position, and assist in first aid and extraction of the subject."
Perkins and Roberts [137] prefer a basic search unit comprising three searchers, over larger teams previously used. They consider that a team of three is the most easily managed, and allows for easier movement and communication between the searchers. Teams appear to work more efficiently due to psychological factors such as a greater feeling of personal responsibility in their searching. Perkins and Roberts reduce this number to two searchers when this is deemed more appropriate for the terrain being searched eg., when searching either side of a ridge. One searcher, alone, can be assigned to search a tributary if other searchers are close by to ensure their safety. New Zealand search teams comprise four members in most instances [165] as this is practical when using four person tents when searching over several days. One is selected as the leader and usually one team member will be a Police SAR squad member trained in disaster victim identification. This is to meet legal requirements in reporting to a coroner if a fatality is encountered (New Zealand National Search and Rescue Course, April 1996).
However, this number will be dependent upon the stage and nature of the search. The leader of a search team is responsible for coordinating the team's activities, and monitoring the mental and physical condition of the members of his team. The time limit of usefulness of a search team in the field will depend upon the nature of the search
- generally this will be four days or less. In particular, experience has shown that more than six hours of continuous searching will give rise to fatigue induced errors [121]. Gallas [66] describes this performance factor as each team having an "operational ceiling." If the operation is prolonged, reserves will be put into the area to replace 'forward teams'.
Perkins and Roberts [138] state: "it is our contention that the search manager del egates responsibility for the operational control of the search plan to the search group leaders, and they manage the search plan." Hence, training of these leaders is key to the success of a search operation.
Jones [93, page 68] states that:
"An aspect that separates leadership requirements in Search and Rescue as opposed to that required in other outdoor activities is that it is largely applied in crisis under pressures of all sorts and under considerable time constraints." Due to the pressures faced, maintaining the morale of the search resources is an impor tant factor. Hill [88] gives the following as a selection of factors which could detrimentally effect searcher morale:
• insufficient briefing;
• "not being properly utilized in the field" ;
• not having their needs considered; and
• being assigned tasks which are lengthy or unrealistically difficult.
3. 5.2 Aircraft
In New Zealand searches there is a high utilization of helicopters. Due to their ability to hover and land in quite restricted areas, they can be specifically utilized in a number of roles. In particular, helicopters are used to collect and transport teams or team leaders, to search areas or the base; perform reconnaissance searches; deliver equipment and supplies; arrange the siting of temporary communication equipment; recover victims; or lift out any evidence found. Often a helicopter will be used for body retrieval as this is less distressing for searchers. Commercial helicopters are used along with Air Force Iroquois helicopters. lroquois helicopters are able to carry three crew and nine other people [99], but their pilots are known to be more reluctant to fly into regions or conditions which may be hazardous (New Zealand National Search and Rescue Course, April 1996) .
Jennex [92] states that "aircraft are best used when the missing subject wants to be found." Colwell [22] stresses that "air support is fast and efficient - and may be far more cost-effective than many days of ground searching" - but suggests that the
3.5. Search Resources 47
patterns used in air searches could be re-examined in terms of efficiency, particularly in light of the significant costs involved.
Helicopters and fixed-wing craft are most useful in searching less dense areas and can be utilized to fly up and down main tracks to indicate their location to the subject. If the conditions are cloudy helicopters are preferable to fixed wing craft due to their hovering ability [165]. Aircraft that are fitted with a Global Positioning System also have the capacity for the direct input of longitude and latitude coordinates, for map references. The maximum flight time of a helicopter is approximately two hours unless loaded with extra fuel and the slowest flying speed of a fixed-wing aircraft is approximately 80 knots
(New Zealand National Search and Rescue Course, April 1996) .
Factors which limit the use of aircraft, both rotary and fixed wing include [50]:
• strong wind;
• air temperature and/or pressure;
• altitude;
• poor visibility eg., low cloud;
• fuel capacity;
• thick bush canopy;
• aircraft weight capacity; and
• size, position, and terrain or other hazards, at the landing site.
Obviously if the size of the object being searched for can not be easily detected from the air, search by air is impractical.
3 . 5 . 3 Search and Tracking Dogs
Syrotuck [159] advocates the effectiveness of search (or air-scenting) dogs, especially in dense terrain, as they can cover large areas more quickly than people. Search dogs can search one square mile (1.6 km sq) in four hours, but they are not generally placed into hazardous regions or adverse conditions. The dogs run ahead of their handler using air