The curriculum

One of the main issues in the discourse on the differences in the perceptions of science and the participation rates in science of girls as compared to boys is the gendered image of science as it is presented in science textbooks and the larger science curriculum. Mitchell and Hoff (2006, p.10) are of the opinion that:

“If we want more women in the sciences, we need first to investigate the ways that the sciences are taught in our classrooms. Researchers and curriculum designers should investigate the ways to change the curricula…”

The impact of the gendered nature of school science textbooks on the perceptions of learners about science needs to be seen against the background of the gendered nature of textbooks generally, across the curriculum. The use of gendered images and text is part of a pattern of the unequal representation of gender in textbooks. This unequal gender representation takes the form of visual images such as illustrations and photographs, or gender role stereotyping, language usage and terminology. Whilst this pattern is changing in favour of an improved balanced in the representations of males and females, the predominantly masculine image of science in learner textbooks persists.

In their study of medical science textbooks, Alexanderson, Wingren and Rosdahl (1998) caution that the manner in which content, illustrations and language are dealt with in textbooks may be affected by the nationality of the authors, owing to differences in cultural norms which influence how gender is expressed and valued. This confirms the view that subjective, gendered images of science and scientists are presented to learners in science classrooms and that socio-economic and cultural influences impact the developers of science teaching resources and subsequently influence learner perceptions.

3.4.4.1 Textbooks across the curriculum

Turner-Bowker (1996, p.463), in applying a feminist analysis and outlining the understated effects of gender stereotyping in children’s literature through the use of language, frames the discourse on the role that textbooks play in education when she states that:

“Books provide role models; from this, children learn what behavior is acceptable for them, for their peers and for adults around them.”

The language and images portrayed in textbooks serve as mediums through which learners receive messages about gender stereotypes. They use these messages to perpetuate the gender stereotype (Turner-Bowker, 1996). The content of textbooks facilitates the interplay between the ‘messages’ that society sends and learners’ self-image or identity. In so doing, it plays a powerful role in fostering or breaking down gender role stereotyping. In their view of the potential influence of textbooks, Sunderland et al. (2001) regard learners’ gender identity as being in a continual state of flux and thus amenable to further influence and shaping.

Joshi (1994) and Evans and Davies (2000) are of the opinion that textbooks, as the agents of the transmission of society’s values and attitudes, are powerful tools in shaping learners’ views of society, and that the content and illustrations found in textbooks cultivate positive or negative attitudes in learners about self-image, gender roles, occupations and chances in life. Elgar (2004) enhances the previous comment on the role of textbooks when she considers the messages that textbooks send to be potentially highly influential because of their ability to affect the learning opportunities and gender identity of learners. In an affirmation of different gender roles for males and females that textbooks portray, a study of the textbooks used in Nepalese primary schools (Joshi) revealed that the textbooks endorse challenges for males but subservience for women; the researcher found that in all the textbooks surveyed, women were portrayed in ‘non-occupational’ activities such as cooking. In reviewing studies of gender equity in educational materials, Rifkin (1998) states that, whilst gender inequities were of different ‘shapes and sizes’, the existence of sexism in instructional material needs to be acknowledged, since it holds important repercussions for learning.

Even in teacher education textbooks where one would expect a greater degree of balance in gender representation as regards illustrations and content, Zittleman and Sadker (2003) found that a gender bias was evident in curriculum materials in the following forms:

 invisibility – where minimal treatment was given to women;

 stereotyping – where individual attributes and differences of women were denied;  imbalance – where the work and sacrifices of women were omitted;

 unreality – where for instance, sexual harassment of women was dismissed;

 fragmentation and isolation – where the role of women was isolated from the mainstream;

 linguistic bias – where masculine terms and pronouns were exclusively used; and  cosmetic bias – where, in a publication, an illusion of the inclusion of women and their

contributions was created.

3.4.4.2 Science textbooks

Studies specifically targeted at investigating the gender bias and gender role stereotyping in science textbooks have focused on illustrations or representations of males and females which reinforce gender role socialisation, the text itself as it pertains to the number of people mentioned by gendered name, the use of language as it relates to the use of gendered terms and pronouns, and philosophical assumptions about science as it is portrayed in science stories.

Potter and Rosser (1992) view the textbook as an important element that influences the teaching of science: in their study of school science textbooks they searched for the factors that have the potential for deterring girls’ interest in science. Whilst Potter and Rosser (1992) in their study of life science textbooks found no proof of direct sexist language or the transmission of occupational stereotypes through the use of language, they did uncover a significant bias in favour of male images in textbook illustrations, which created the impression that males are the norm as far is science is concerned.

Elgar (2004) regards it as important that the illustrative representations of males and females be equally portrayed in school science textbooks, which are an important resource during science lessons. This would ensure that learners get a more balanced view of the participation of girls and boys in science and science careers. In their concern for the subliminal and theoretical messages that a difference in the ratio of males to females in science textbooks present to boys and girls, whilst Bazler and Simonis (1991) noted an improvement in the ratio of male images to female images in the high school chemistry textbooks they surveyed, a negative difference of fewer girls’ than boys’ images still exists – this, they felt, still contained the possibility of creating the impression that science is for males.

In her study of three of Bruneian (a country in Southeast Asia) lower secondary science textbooks, Elgar (2004) looked at how females and males are represented in both illustrations as well as in the text. As an important aspect of gender equity, Elgar (2004) found that in illustrations, whilst the sex of the person portrayed was clearly apparent, the dress was distinctively male or female, and whilst the number of people mentioned by name was very low, not one female scientist was mentioned: this meant there were no female scientist role models to which girls could aspire and where photographs of women were used, the women appeared to be passive. With regard to the survey of the text used in the science textbooks, Elgar (2004, pp.885-886) also found:

 only two instances of the explicitly gender-neutral formulation ‘he or she’ and

 in the use of generic language as a source of gender bias, there was no instance of the use of masculine gender pronouns being used to include females.

Elgar’s (2004) findings exposed a distinct gender imbalance in the illustrations in favour of males, confirming the masculine image of science to Bruneian girls and boys. However, in the text there was a balanced approach, indicating that not all science textbooks are skewed by presenting an exclusively masculine image of science.

In their gender analysis of medical textbooks Alexanderson, Wingren and Rosdahl (1998) confirm the gender bias prevalent in science textbooks in which the male is considered the norm and the ‘invisibility’ of gender differences as articulated by Zittleman and Sadker (2003), comprising individual biological or psychosocial differences that women present. Alexanderson, Wingren and Rosdahl (1998) indicate that most of the books surveyed were written by men and express the view that, in the textbooks surveyed, the stereotypical sex pattern is consolidated in the text and the examples used.

In looking at a different aspect of the representation of the female and male in science textbooks, Milne (1998) examines the implications of the philosophical correctness of science stories as they are told in science textbooks and informs that the stories uphold a particular set of philosophical assumptions about science and present embedded notions about the nature of science. In contextualising the social norms implicit in stories in science textbooks, Milne (1998) expresses the view that science stories relate to culture via social norms, and impart a concept of the culture of science which helps learners to make sense of science in their classroom discussions. Milne (1998, p.182) implies that the portrayal of women in science stories is tokenistic and that these stories depict women scientists as having “defied convention to make it in a man’s world”, as exceptions to the rule and as having had to work very hard to achieve what they have – as if, under normal circumstances, male scientists would find it less challenging to be scientists. The portrayal of children emulating the science career roles of men and women in textbooks continues to present images which perpetuate gender role stereotyping in science.

The masculine image of science as portrayed in learner science textbooks has therefore been shown to advance the ‘hidden curriculum’ which promotes male dominance and is not supportive of the aspirations of girls; the textbooks give credence to the belief that science is a male pursuit and is best suited to males.