Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis refers to a process of organising, categorising and meaningfully interpreting a vast number of words and expressions obtained from qualitative research tools such as interviews, field notes or documentary surveys. The analysis has to be merged with the conceptual framework and tied to the research objectives of the study (Creswell, 2009; Yin, 2009; Miles and Huberman, 1994).

Qualitative data analysis, as suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994), consists of three concurrent flows of activity:

1. Data reduction, which involves selecting, simplifying, abstracting and interpreting the data that appear in field notes or transcriptions. It is not a separate process from analysis.

2. Data display involves extended texts, and is of major importance for validating qualitative analysis.

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The note transcripts were read as a whole and in sections across the interviews to ensure they reflected the meaning of interviewees’ opinions. This analysis “proceeded until topics and themes were clear in addressing the findings” (Marsh and Stoker, 1995: 152). Amaratunga et al. (2002: 26) state that “the analysis of research evidence requires the analysis and interpretation of research data and forms the major part of the research”, using analytical methods that reflect the analytical strategy that has been put together (in this study for the analysis of the NPM reform terms and generating the themes and patterns). They added:

Different types of method can be found including examining, categorising, tabulating, or otherwise recording the evidence to address the initial propositions of a study. It determines the limits of data collection and dissemination of results (ibid: 26).

The first stage of analysis was the coding of the data. Coding of data refers to the review of interview notes and transcripts, labelling the key themes and meaning emerging from the data that have potential to answer the research questions. The process of coding involved looking for examples of different perspectives, preferences, perceptions, actions or events from those being interviewed (Bryman and Bell, 2007; Miles and Huberman, 1994). In this process, the focus was on categorising the emerging themes that were established according to the descriptive labels assigned for each theme. This was followed by the identification of the core categories that provide concepts, constructs and meaning to answer the research questions. Statistical analysis of the coded replies (pattern, themes and sub-themes) produces observed regularities which form the basis of explanations, generalisations and predictions (idea from Marsh and Stoker, 1995: 140).

3.5 Validity

The term “validity” is one that is frequently used in the world of research. According to Thursfield (2000: 20), validity is “the extent to which the study measures what it is meant to measure”. Neuman (2000) notes that the validity of a survey is the degree of fit between a construct a researcher uses to describe, theorise, or analyse the social world and what actually occurs. He adds that validity means truthfulness, as it aims to make sure that survey items are clear and understandable. For Creswell (2009: 190), it means:

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The researcher checks for the accuracy of the finding by employing certain procedures, while qualitative reliability indicates that the researcher’s approach is consistent across different researchers and different projects.

He added:

Validity is one of the strengths of qualitative research, and it is based on determining whether the findings are accurate from the standpoint of the researcher, the participant, or the readers of an account (ibid: 191).

Qualitative researchers need to establish the validity of the interpretation and demonstrate the plausibility of their interpretation of the data, which should be made as explicit as possible by identifying majority and minority views on a topic of interest (Marsh and Stoker, 1995). They added that the internal consistency of an account can be assessed to establish whether an analysis is coherent with themes that have been identified. External validity can be established by checking the findings with other studies (ibid).

Fielding (1993) suggests that sound qualitative analysis can support its claims to validity through evidencing data which have been systematically collected. Qualitative findings, therefore, “can have significance beyond the time and place in which they were conducted” (Ward Schofield, 1993: 205).

The qualitative researcher, however, has to be tentative about drawing inferences from a small number of cases to the population at large (Rose, 1982 cited in Marsh and Stoker, 1995). Indeed, some writers question the appropriateness of the concepts of external validity or generalisability in qualitative research. Guba and Lincoln (1994) propose instead the criterion of transferability. In this case, the decision rests with the reader as to whether contexts are sufficiently alike that insights from one can appropriately be transferred to another. The researcher’s responsibility, therefore, is to provide a sufficiently clear, rich and detailed account of the research context, to enable such a judgement to be made. Every effort has been made to do this throughout this project. Other quality criteria in qualitative research include trustworthiness and credibility. Trustworthiness is one of the key issues in qualitative research (Padgett 1998; Kazdin 1998). A reliable and valid study has been conducted ethically and fairly and its findings represent as accurately as possible its respondents’ experience (Padgett, 1998). In this study, participants were fully briefed about the nature of the study and gave voluntary, informed consent to participating. Their views are represented in later

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chapters of this thesis, with rich use of quotation to enable verification of the researcher’s interpretations.

When qualitative study presents accurate and recognisable descriptions or interpretations of a certain human experience, the study can be considered as credible at that point (De Vos, 1998). In this research, the following means were employed to assure the required credibility:

1. Principles and skills were used as tools to build rapport with the participants in order to encourage them to share their experience of the research topic and gain their confidence.

2. A process of inductive analysis was used in order to describe and interpret respondents’ experiences.

3. A triangulation of research methods was used in collecting data to provide opportunities for checking and peer data examination.