Data analysis

Historical inquiry’s data analysis is not a distinctly recognisable phase. Rather, it is an arbitrary point in the much-repeated cycle of collecting data, reflecting on its meaning and, guided by the questions arising from such analytic reflections, collecting data again. In this way, vulnerable and invulnerable insights are obtained, and demi-regularities discovered (Fletcher 2017:184). The cyclical nature of the data analysis phase was supported by Lonergan’s three cognition levels (note Chapter 2, Figure 2.2), which explains the fact that repeated and reflective reading of the data allowed the researcher to gain insight and knowledge of reality. Qualitative data analysis must be guided by the research objectives, which provide direction and purpose (Brink et al 2012:193; Nieuwenhuis 2010c:99-100).

3.3.3.1 Applying a priori codes

The qualitative researcher must devise some way of arranging and categorising the large volume of data that have been collected during the study. As soon as data collection commenced, the categorising process began. As the researcher developed a deeper understanding of the research phenomena, these preliminary categories at times changed (Brink et al 2012:193-194; Nieuwenhuis 2010c:104).

One method of arranging data, which also effectively assisted in providing historical context, was the use of a priori codes. A priori codes differ from inductive codes in that inductive codes emerge from the data, while a priori codes are determined before data analysis commences. Applying a priori codes to the art of historical inquiry demanded that the researcher use pre-set research categories (e.g. influential historical events) to collect data specific to each of the a priori categories. The value of arranging data in this

way was that it provided the researcher with a clear direction of what information to collect (hence the researcher’s choice of non-probability purposive sampling) so that crystallisation (data saturation) could be reached. By implication, a priori codes influenced the narrative style of the research report (Fealy et al 2013:1890; Gibson & Brown 2009:132; Lincoln & Guba 1985: 201-202; Nieuwenhuis 2010c:107, 109). Lewenson (2008:40) confirms that the historical narrative can be written using an issue-based, a chronological or a biographical approach. The researcher used the issue-based approach by focusing on influential events in the history of South African nursing organisations.

The history of South African nursing organisations was divided into smaller areas of study by using flexible time periods, each of which is associated with the professional nursing organisation and/or a significant historical event that dominated that specific period. Using a priori codes allowed the researcher the flexibility to refer to other, lesser professional nursing organisations that emerged from the data. Thus, the researcher could give strength to the narrative by including all variables (D’Antonio 2008:11, 13).

Previous research (Esterhuizen 2012:30) taught the researcher that a willingness to be flexible about a priori codes is essential during historical inquiry. As information emerged from the data it became necessary to adapt, change or even abandon a priori codes that were used at the beginning of the research. The a priori codes changed because the researcher read archival sources and literature, reflected on the data collected and came to a new understanding and insight. Guided by critical realism principles, the focus of the study shifted from strictly applied time periods to events and causative mechanisms which significantly influenced nursing organisations (and hence the professional development of nursing) in a historical era. The adaptation of a priori codes illustrates the fact that the researcher’s understanding of the historical phenomena and their meaning changed as she became immersed in the data (Gibson & Brown 2009:133-134). D’Antonio (2008:21) quotes Peter Novick who states that “trying to write history ... is like trying to nail jelly to a wall”. At most, the use of a priori codes gave the jelly form.

3.3.3.2 The research instrument

Also guiding the historical inquiry’s data collection and analysis was the research instrument, namely the researcher (Streubert & Rinaldi Carpenter 2011:89). The

social (historical) phenomena being studied. Critical realists (Benton 2011:3) accept this positioning of the researcher within society. The value of the human research instrument lies in his or her ability to utilise what Lincoln and Guba (1985:187, 195-198) refer to as tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is a way of understanding that which is difficult to explain, but essential to human (and thus the researcher’s) insight into life’s events. It forms the basis from which all deductions about human behaviour are made and can only be used by the human instrument. The instrument understands because he or she has experience of being human (Lincoln & Guba 1985:195).

The cyclical nature of historical inquiry implies that data collection, analysis and the writing of the narrative occur simultaneously, continuously and randomly. However, it is important to portray the historical time line and context accurately and truthfully. “[T]he art of contemplation, speculation and of interpretation” (Sweeney 2005:71) is required. The social history context and philosophical underpinnings of the study guided the search for data, and assisted with determining its inherent value and, finally, the judgements made (Lewenson 2008:15, 18, 26, 40; Sweeney 2005:64-65, 71).

3.3.3.3 Diverse types of documents create historical context

As stated earlier in this chapter (sub-section 3.3.1–3.3.2), the data sources of the study comprised any type of literature that shed light on the history of South African nursing organisations. Lincoln and Guba (1985:278-279) mention certain principles pertaining to the analysis of records:

 Assume that some form of record will exist for any event that happened.

 Being familiar with the functioning of society enables one to image the tracks that must have been left by the event.

 If the researcher is familiar with the world of records, he or she will know where to start looking for such tracks.

Once the historical documents have been found, Babbie (2013:318) suggests that the researcher asks the following questions about the documents:

 Why was it written? Who was the author?  Is there evidence of bias in the document?

 How much time passed from the event being witnessed until it was recorded?  What historical question does the document answer?

The value of newspapers is that they offer the reader a variety of views about current affairs and access to persons (e.g. political leaders) who might otherwise not be accessible to the researcher. It is, however, noteworthy to remember that newspapers do not represent an unbiased view of matters and they tend to sensationalise an issue. The researcher can also not be sure who the source of the information was. Newspapers were therefore not considered as primary sources, but rather as documents that assisted with the development of an in-depth understanding of events (Gibson & Brown 2009:74-75). Lincoln and Guba (1985:279) are not too concerned; they declare that potentially all data sources have some form of factual inaccuracy or misrepresentation and warn the researcher to be always vigilant.

Diaries on the other hand are primary sources, as the researcher can discover facts, previously unknown, of the writer’s life and views. Herein lies the historian’s dilemma: should these previously unknown facts be made public? It is suggested that permission should be obtained first (Brundage 2013:20; Gibson & Brown 2009:74). In this study, only one diary, on public display in a museum, was accessed and used. It was not possible to ask permission from the late author. The researcher reflected and concluded that the one reference from the diary could be made public without harm to the author’s reputation or social standing.

Photographs, maps and drawings are powerful illustrators of a historical period. However, the researcher has to make sure that the image is representative of the truth – that it effectively explains the historical context. Photographs (e.g. the 100-year state registration commemorative coin) and scanned documents (e.g. letters from archives) were used to illustrate parts of historical events that might otherwise have been difficult to explain. They support and add value to the narrative (Gibson & Brown 2009:81-83).

Other forms of documentation such as letters, e-mails and online documents are important from the social research point of view. Gibson and Brown (2009:74) acknowledge electronic, online data as a valid documentary source, but unfortunately

from the text (Gibson & Brown 2009:79-80). The researcher limited this type of data source to scanned historical documents from acknowledged, credible online archives such as that of the University of the Witwatersrand and historical journals available on the UNISA library’s e-resources.

3.3.3.4 Historical context within data sources

It was important that the researcher considers the potential value and/or limitations of each type of literature (critical realism’s linguistic devices) that might have triggered a linguistic turn and influence organisational action (note Chapter 2, sub-section 2.4). Due to the diverse nature of the primary and secondary sources used in this study, a short checklist (note Annexure B) to assist with the analysis of each source was required. Gibson and Brown (2009:72) refer to such a checklist as a record sheet and suggest that the following be included:

 Section 1: broad questions asked of all historical documents  Section 2: questions specifically asked of this document  Section 3: new questions arising from reading this document

Similarly, Galgano et al (2008:42) suggest that the following questions assist the researcher to find historical context in data sources:

 Who are the significant participants in the historical event?  What was their response(s) to the event?

 Are there factors that conditioned this response?  What are these participants’ values and beliefs?

 What were the economic, social and political systems of the time?  To what extent did ethnicity, class and/or gender matter?

 At the time, what other historical influencing factors were evident?  How did these historical influencers affect the groups/persons involved?

The researcher used the above-mentioned guidelines to create the checklist evident in Annexure B. These guidelines provided the researcher with a valuable tool that directed data analysis, so that the research narrative and findings could be placed within an

acceptable and reliable historical context. As confirmed by critical realists (Elger 2012:7), the use of diverse types of data reveals the complexity of data patterns and their arrangements. Rich, sweeping explanations assisted in explaining intricate interactions between agents and structural factors.