Data Analysis

3.10.1 Main ideas about grounded theory coding and analyzing

Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) point out that “coding can be either concept driven or data driven” and it is a process that “involves attaching one or more keywords to a text

segment in order to permit later identification of a statement” (pp. 201-202). For grounded theorists who aim to generate understanding grounded in data, it is

suggested not to use existing concepts, theoretical frameworks or “preconceived standardized codes” for analysis (Charmaz, 2000, p. 515). From the constructivist

viewpoint, as coding involves researchers’ interpretations, his or her preconceptions might be brought into analytical processes in ways that undermine the research. Thus,

Charmaz (2006) reminds that “coding” should consistently be conducted based on “participants’ concerns” rather than “disciplinary or personal concerns” (p. 69).

Furthermore, when inspecting each piece of data by a series of systematic techniques, such as: word-by-word, line-by-line and incident-by-incident coding, researchers

should (1) “avoid rushing past diamonds in the rough” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p.89); (2) be constrained to conduct initial coding properly rather than skip over texts and

intentionally select segments to meet a preconceived framework; and (3) develop the product of grounded theory thoroughly from each piece of data. In addition,

line-by-line coding is one of the most widely suggested techniques to achieve the above advantages, though it is also reminded that “not every sentence may appear to

be important” in the text (Charmaz, 2006, p. 50).

The process of data analysis starts with coding. Saldańa (2009) explains that “a code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a

summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (p. 3). In grounded theory coding, Charmaz (2006)

indicates the whole analytic process begins with “initial coding” and that every produced code should “stick closely to the data” (p. 47). In this stage, “word-by-word”,

“line-by-line” and “incident coding” are often used (pp. 50-53); and “in vivo code” is another technique that allows codes to be taken directly from the “terms” used by

participants (p. 55). In addition, “comparison” among produced codes can be used to distinguish significant codes for use in later analysis.

In the stage of focused coding, initial codes that “make the most analytic sense” are

used as categories and sub-categories (p. 57). In this stage, so-called “Axial coding” is the process that links categories with sub-categories. Relationships between codes and

categories could be found through their “conditions”, “actions/interactions” and “consequences” (p. 61). After that, the final stage of analytic work is called

“theoretical coding”, that “specifies possible relationships between categories”. In this phase the researcher reassembles fractured segments in order to present an “analytic

story in a theoretical direction” (p. 63). Because products of theoretical coding are usually presented as themes, this stage of the process can also be called “thematic

level” of analysis (Harry et al., 2005). Additionally, Charmaz (2006: p. 72) emphasizes that “memo-writing” – records of the researcher’s analytic thoughts – is a

critical strategy that facilitates the generation of theoretical understanding or products right from the early stage of data analysis.

Published guidelines for, and advice on, grounded theory analysis seem to be clear,

though in my experience, it becomes more problematic once the actual analytic work starts, particularly when conducting grounded theory analysis with the help of

computer-assisted software – Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing Searching and Theorizing Vivo, Version 8 (Nvivo 8). The initial purpose of using Nvivo 8 was

to assist data management and support the process of theory development. However, the use of Nvivo 8 resulted in analytical and procedural difficulties that were not

identified in many methodology textbooks. Several actions were taken to resolve these problems and they are explained and illustrated in the following sections.

3.10.2 Conducting open coding by using longer codes in Nvivo 8

With respect to the use of Nvivo 8, Charmaz (2000) argued that “these software packages appear more suited for objectivist grounded theory than constructivist

approaches” (p. 520). However, after I got to know the function of Nvivo 8, I presumed this argument might refer to ‘Queries’, which is a function that allows

researchers to conduct coding by searching key words. In order to make sure that findings were grounded in each piece of data, rather than key words that might skip

important information, the ‘Queries’ function was not used in initial coding.

However, by following the suggestion that open codes produced should be “open…simple and precise…short” (Charmaz, 2006, p. 49), I encountered another

critical problem when open coding was conducted in Nvivo 8. In a sense, every short open-code made sense when it was coded on paper or in a word document, because it

was always displayed right next to the relevant text (Figure 3.04). However, when I conducted open coding in Nvivo 8 and saved the selected texts within produced

open-codes, the short open-codes became less easy to understand unless each of them were double-clicked to display relevant texts on the right side (Figure 3.05).

Figure 3.04 Coding on Microsoft Word

Coded Open-codes

Texts of open-codes located in the whole transcription

Figure 3.05 Coding by using Nvivo 8

The detached situation between open-codes and their text became even more

problematic when a very large number of short open-codes were produced and displayed on Nvivo 8. Although it was theoretically possible to induct large numbers

of codes into categories – like doing content analysis, it was difficult to manage in practice. In addition, such a process would then become products of objective

induction rather than interpretive construction, because those short open-codes did not carry enough meaning to recognise their contextual properties and dimensions.

Therefore, in order to have open-codes that carried sufficient information for later analysis, longer open-codes were used when conducting open coding in Nvivo 8.

3.10.3 Doing focused coding in two directions: life history and emerged themes Although longer open-codes were more understandable when they were displayed on Nvivo 8, they were still difficult to use/manage if they were not analyzed and

3. Saved texts of one