4.6.1 Analysis of outcome measures
Findings from the SDQ and FAD-GF were used to provide descriptive data of the presenting characteristics of the young people and that relating to the general functioning of the foster family, as perceived by both young person and their carer. The data provided by both measures were compared to the findings generated from interview data.
4.6.2 Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006)
A total of nine interviews were completed by six participants (three foster carer-child dyads). All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed6.
4.6.2.1 Procedure of Thematic Analysis
It has been argued that ‘good quality’ qualitative research should be transparent regarding the process of analysis (Smith, 1996) and thus in order for the qualitative data to be conducted and outlined in a rigorous and systematic way, Braun and Clarke’s (2006) guidelines were followed.
The process of TA requires several research phases. The first phase requires that the researcher becomes familiar with the data. This is best achieved through reading and re- reading the data, whilst making initial notes of any initial ideas and reflections. The second phase involved generating initial codes from the data by “coding the interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion across the entire data set” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p.87) and then collating these initial codes into potential themes by gathering all the data relevant to
6
143
that potential theme. Finally the researcher is required to review the potential themes and assess whether they relate to both the coded extracts and the entire data set.
Braun and Clarke (2006) further advocate for the theoretical position of the TA being made explicit. In this way, the analysis was guided by a ‘contextualist’ method, in that the ways that individuals make sense of their experiences within their social context, whilst “retaining limits of reality” (p.81) were acknowledged.
4.6.2.2 Reliability of codes and themes
As studies typically arise from the researcher’s passion and interests, the researcher’s biases will undoubtedly enter into the study, from the words selected to frame the problem to the description of participants’ actions. For this reason, peer review was undertaken which provided the opportunity to gain alternative interpretations of the data. Criticisms of the process of peer review suggest that it relies on the positivist assumption that there is a fixed, singular truth to which results must compare (Angen, 2000). The purpose of credibility checking within this study was not to obtain an objective truth, but rather to gain multiple perspectives on the same data, thus leading to a richer understanding of its meaning (Tracy, 2010).
The following steps were taken during the peer review process:
1. Data was initially coded by the researcher, in addition to preliminary reflections being recorded upon reading individual transcripts.
2. One participant transcript was analysed by peer review, so as to provide a sense of reliability checking regarding the initial codes developed.
3. Once data had been coded across the whole data set, the analysis was focused to incorporate different codes into broader, overarching themes
4. Potential themes were then assessed as to whether they related to both the coded extracts and the entire data set. This peer review was undertaken by members of my cohort, who are fellow qualitative researchers and one of my supervisors, a Clinical Psychologist specialising in child and adolescent mental health. Both parties agreed that the themes produced could be justified from the transcripts.
144
5. Regular discussion was undertaken throughout the analysis process with peers who were also undertaking TA research, which enabled the ongoing consideration of alternative interpretations of the data.
4.6.2.3 Seeking member reflections (Tracy, 2010)
There has been much debate in the literature as to whether participants, including young people, should take part in data analysis and it has been argued that without doing so, research can be criticised for not being fully participatory or credible (Thomas and O’Kane, 1998; Tracy, 2010). Seeking member reflections can therefore allow for multiple voices to be heard during the process of data analysis and thus “allows for sharing and dialoguing with participants about the study’s findings (Tracy, 2010, p.844).
Particular consideration was given as to how and if member reflections should be sought from participants as it has been argued that consulting with young people could be considered inappropriate if they are unable to relate to the analysis (Yardley, 2008). Given that it felt important for participants’ contributions to be heard and validated, the opportunity to comment via follow-up interviews was extended to all participants. It was decided that participant feedback would be gained from interviews rather than via written means as it was felt that this would allow for clarification of themes and further discussion. Interestingly, all participants declined to take part in this process, yet requested that themes and dilemmas raised within their joint interview be fed back to their CAMHS clinician, perhaps reflecting a desire to make clinical use of this data whilst also maintaining an emotional distance. Moreover, all participants expressed a wish to be provided with a final summary of the study’s research findings. It may well be that choosing to see themes as part of a shared collective within a final document felt less exposing to participants than having themes identified individually (Dance and Rushton, 2005).
4.6.3 PCP analysis
In addition to the thematic analysis, the study also aimed to augment the findings by examining the interactional processes between the young people and their foster carers. PCP concepts were therefore held in mind during the analysis so as to explore the potential similarities and differences between young peoples’ and foster carers’ construct systems, in addition to ways in which discrepancies in construing might be negotiated within the foster
145
carer-child relationship. This means of data analysis has also previously been undertaken by Denner-Stewart (2010). The PCP concepts to which particular attention was paid are indicated below.
4.6.3.1 Dilation/Constriction
Within PCP, dilation and constriction are used to describe the broadening and narrowing of a person’s perceptual field. Kelly (1955) defined constriction in terms of the process of reducing one’s perceptual field, thereby limiting how the world is construed. It could be argued that individuals use constriction to limit their anxiety by reducing a potentially overwhelming world into something more manageable. In this way, looked after children placed within a foster family whose constructs are perceived to be discrepant to their own might constrict their view of themselves and others, in order to make it less threatening. In contrast, dilation is defined by the expansion of one’s perceptual field. Arguably, an individual with a dilated construct system might view all problems as inter-related.
4.6.3.2 Loose/tight construing
“Tight constructs are those which lead to unvarying predictions” (Kelly, 1955, p.357). Therefore, individuals might make the same predictions repeatedly, whereas loose constructs are “those which lead to varying predictions but which, for practical purposes, may be said to retain their identity” (p.357). Loose construers may therefore be seen as unpredictable.
4.6.3.3 Validation/Invalidation
From a PCP perspective, validation can be described as an anticipation that turns out the way we expected, or a perceived acknowledgement from others confirming the view that we have of ourselves (Butler and Green, 2007). Invalidation therefore occurs when our constructions or anticipations are discredited. It might therefore be that the foster child’s negatively perceived behaviour can be explained in terms of their constructions being invalidated by their current foster family.