Qualitative analysis is characteristically placed within the interpretive paradigm. It is not dependent on experimentally examined or measured data with respect to quantity, amount, but stresses the socially constructed views between the researcher and research aims. Rubrics have an element of quantitative analysis and they were
evaluated together with the lesson plans and classroom observations of the teachers. As this analysed the PCK of Life Sciences teachers in different topics they taught, the PCK was perceived as something flexible and situated within a set of teaching contents and strategies, obtained by the collection of data methods. In qualitative studies, the data collection and analysis occur at the same time.
The collected data was analysed by using Saldana’s coding method and then clustered into categories and emerging themes, examined from multiple perspectives and
descriptions of the phenomenon were constructed. According to Saldana (2009:6), a code is a “word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient,
essence-capturing name for a portion of language-based or visual data”. Saldana also identified that coding is an investigative method which does not follow a particular formula Saldana (2009:6).
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When coding was applied to the data in this study in vivo coding, as well as descriptive coding and value coding were used as filters. In vivo coding is when the code is taken from exact words spoken by a participant, while descriptive coding (or topic coding) is used when summarising what is said in a passage by one word or a short phrase. Value coding was also used to reflect a participant’s values, attitudes and beliefs.
Saldana explains that when applying two or more types of coding as in this study it is also known as simultaneous coding (Saldana, 2009).
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Figure 3.2: Saldana’s codes theory model for qualitative inquiry
Source: Saldana, 2009:12 The following drawbacks, as identified by Saldana (2009) and Creswell (2007) were considered when coding was applied: having too many themes, and using pre-existing themes or codes. They suggest between three and seven themes as the ideal, although it is not a fixed rule. The frequency of a code was observed as an indicator of importance, but counts are not reported in the report. Codes were derived inductively, by not deciding on themes or codes beforehand. Codes were derived while the data was analysed. Creswell (2007:152) calls theses pre-existing codes a priori codes. This inductive method was chosen in this study due to the fact that priori codes or sub-themes tend to limit the analysis, while open codes reflect the views of the participants in a more comprehensive way. Code Code Code Code Code Code Category Subcategory Subcategory Category Themes/ Concepts Themes/ Concepts
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The individual interviews with the teachers were transcribed, checked for correctness by reading through the transcriptions, highlighting important sections in the texts, segments were selected of the text, and the segments then were labeled, given a code (Henning et al, 2004). The codes were clustered together to match in categories and develop themes from these clusters (Henning et al, 2004). The reasons why these techniques are fitting for this study, is that they give holistic descriptions of events and behaviours (Henning et al, 2004).
With the questionnaires, the answers of the participants could be compared with the VNOS reported in the literature. In addition, their dialogues from the teacher reflections were transcribed to analyse for similarities and inconsistencies in teachers’ aspects of PCK. The purpose of analysing the documentation was to examine the evidence of educational philosophy and values, which were entrenched in teachers’ teaching practice. Every part of the data was analysed independently and then triangulated to provide validity and reliability of the data.
This VNOS questionnaire was designed to give some idea of a teacher’s own philosophy of science. The teacher had to give one a number ranging from ‘strongly agree’ (+5) to ‘strongly disagree’ (-5) to each statement and place it next to the statement; a score of 0 would indicate a balanced view.
I used the responses, using the scoring system, to work out a profile of every teacher’s VNOS. I placed a score for each question in the appropriate box(es) in the table below (Table 3.4). According to the instructions of the questionnaire, some questions ‘scored’ twice, meaning that some questions had two scores and not just one score. The
instructions further states that a number of scores had to have their sign reversed; for example, multiplied by -1 before they can be used. This was indicated by a minus symbol (-) next to the number, for example if their response to the first statement is –3, then the score in the right-hand column on the would be +3 instead.
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Table 3.2: Nature of Science Profile Scoring table
RP ID CD PC IR State- ment Score State- ment Score State- ment Score State- ment Score State- ment Score 1 - 5 - 2 - 7 - 10 - 3 - 11 - 3 - 9 - 21 + 21 - 19 + 6 - 17 - 4 + 12 + 23 + 8 - 24 - 12 + 14 + 18 + 13 + 15 + 14 + 16 + 16 + 20 + 22 +
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I then transferred the total marks from the columns to the positions on each of the five relevant axis and added up the totals.
Relativism Positivism -40 -32 -24 -16 -8 RP 8 16 24 32 40
|__|__|__|__|__|__|__| _|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|
Inductivism Deductivism -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 ID 4 8 12 16 20|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|
Contextualism Decontextualism -40 -32 -24 -16 -8 CD 8 16 24 32 40|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|
Process Driven Content Driven
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 PC 5 10 15 20 25
|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|
Instrumentalism Realism
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 IR 5 10 15 20 25
|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|
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The results were interpreted using the five axes below. Relativism-Positivism Axis
Relativism refers to the denial that things are true or false solely based on an
independent reality. The ‘truth’ of a theory will depend upon the norms and rationality of the social group considering it as well as the experimental techniques used to test it. Judgments as to the truth of scientific theories will vary from individual to individual and from one culture to another, i.e. truth is relative not absolute (Nott & Wellington, 1993). Positivism refers to the belief that scientific knowledge is more valid that other forms of knowledge. The laws and theories generated by experiment are our descriptions of patterns we see in a real external objective world. To the positivist, science is the primary source of truth. Positivism recognises empirical facts and observable phenomena as the raw materials of science. The scientist’s job is to establish the objective relationships between the laws governing the facts and the observables. Positivism rejects enquiry into underlying causes and ultimate origins (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
Inductivism – Deductivism axis
Inductivism refers to the belief that the scientist’s job is the interrogation of nature. By observing many particular instances, one is able to reason from the particular to the general and then determines the underlying laws and theories. According to inductivism scientists generalise from a set of observations to a universal law, inductively. Scientific knowledge is built by induction from a secure set of observations (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
Deductivism refers to the belief that scientists proceed by testing ideas produced by the logical consequence of current theories or of the bold imaginative ideas. According to deductivism (or hypothetico-deductivism), scientific reasoning consists of the forming of hypotheses, which are not established by the empirical data but may be suggested by them. Science then proceeds by testing the observable consequences of these
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hypotheses, i.e., observations are directed or led by hypotheses - they are theory laden (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
Contextualism – Decontextualism axis
Contextualism refers to the view that the truth of scientific knowledge and process is interdependent with the culture in which the scientist lives and in which it takes place (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
Decontextualism refers to the view that scientific knowledge is independent of its cultural location and sociological structure (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
Process-Content axis
Process driven refers to the way science is seen as a characteristic set of identifiable methods or processes. The learning of these is the essential part of science education (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
Content driven refers to that science is characterised by the facts and ideas it has and that the essential part of science is the acquisition and mastery of the body of
knowledge (Nott & Wellington, 1993). Instrumentalism-Realism axis
Instrumentalism refers to the idea scientific ideas are valid if they work, that is they allow correct predictions to be made. They are instruments that we can use but they say nothing about an independent reality or their own truth (Nott & Wellington, 1993). Realism refers to the belief that scientific theories are statements about a world that exists in space and time independent of the scientist’s perceptions. Correct theories describe things which are really there, independent of the scientists, for example atoms (Nott & Wellington, 1993).
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Each of the teachers’ responses was compared to each other in the sample. The teachers’ responses to identification of inaccuracy and misconceptions were analysed. Each item was tabulated and comparisons and common threads were drawn and
analysed in the discussion in Chapter 5. From the transcriptions and other data sources, conversation excerpts that supported common ideas identified in the literature were identified and these excerpts were then interpreted and cross-examined.