Data analysis

Yin (2009, p.69) suggests that ‘as you collect case study evidence, you must quickly review the evidence and continually ask yourself why events or facts appear as they do’. Case study methodology is therefore reliant on the researcher’s ability to interpret the information as it is

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being collected, as it allows changes to be made or alternative lines of enquiry to be pursued in light of the data provided. A timeline of the research activities can be seen in Appendix 9.

A formal analysis of data was carried out at the end of the data collection process. Thematic analysis was selected as a method to analyse the qualitative data. Thematic analysis does not subscribe to any particular pre-existing theoretical framework, yet it is important that the manner in which it is applied is made explicit and transparent (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) across an entire data set, rather than within a data item, such as an individual interview or interviews from one person, as in the case of biographical or case-study forms of analysis, such as narrative analysis (eg, Murray, 2003).

Taking this into consideration, a process of cross case synthesis was decided upon (Yin, 2009). Thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) was used as a tool to carry out this cross case synthesis, as it allowed for the identification and analysis of key themes within the data corpus. This process enabled themes to be identified across the case studies and cross case conclusions to be drawn relating to the research questions. However, despite thematic analysis being widely used, there is no clear agreement about what thematic analysis is and how to carry it out (Tuckett, 2005). As this research aligns itself with an epistemological stance that argues that each person’s experiences are subjective, thematic analysis was used within a social constructionist framework which identifies patterns (themes, stories) within data, and theorises language as constitutive of meaning and meaning as social.

In relation to the current study, thematic analysis is a method of analysis that aims to reflect the reality of the participants and for this reason is considered to be ‘essentialist’ or ‘realist’

(Braun & Clarke, 2006). An inductive or ‘bottom up’ approach was predominantly applied where the identification of themes was driven by the data (Patton, 1990) and themes were

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identified due to their frequency with which they occurred within and between the strands of data. However, it is important to note that on occasion a deductive or ‘top down’ approach may inadvertently have been applied as data is not coded without researcher bias (Braun &

Clarke., 2006). This was counteracted by the use of a co-researcher (a Trainee EP) viewing the thematic analysis process. The Trainee EP transcribed one interview and carried out the phases of the thematic analysis process (see Table 9) independently. Furthermore, she then observed the initial codes as phase 2, and generated themes. This was then compared to my thematic analysis of the data which was carried out independently. It is possible that certain elements of the thematic analysis were driven by my theoretical interest in the area rather than emerging from the data itself. Braun and Clarke (2006) would therefore maintain that researchers do not just give voice to the participants and that it is important for researchers to recognise the possible influence of bias in data analysis (Fine, 2002). I therefore describe the process of analysis that I undertook. Also I presented a summary of each participant’s interview to the participant after the thematic analysis process had taken place to minimise my subjective interpretation of the data.

Coding was generally conducted at a semantic or explicit level rather than a latent or interpretative level (Boyatizis, 1998). In this sense, the coding represented a description of the content of looked-after young people’s responses. I believe that this allowed for the face validity of the data to be preserved whilst minimising my subjective interpretation of looked-after young people’s comments. I contained the ‘double hermeneutic’ (Giddens, 1982) in that I did not attempt to interpret looked-after young people’s comments which were already their interpretation of their world. Thus, I adopted a realist approach (Cohen et al., 2003) in data analysis through not donating any further interpretation of the social/contextual influences that may have shaped looked-after young people’s views.

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An outline of the phases of thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006) and how they were applied in the current study is provided in Table 9. This highlights how the data gathered from the semi-structured interviews was integrated and analysed. The data was not analysed separately in relation to each of the PCP techniques (sentence completion task, talking stones, and laddering and pyramiding). This was because the primary aim of the PCP techniques was to facilitate the discussion within the interview rather than to ask direct questions. As a result the data was analysed as a whole using a semantic approach to coding.

Table 9: Phases of Thematic Analysis (adapted from Braun & Clarke, 2006)

Phase Description of the process

1. Familiarising yourself with the data

All interviews were transcribed one-by-one (an example transcript can be seen in Appendix 11). They were read and re-read and initial ideas were noted. Transcribing data has been acknowledged as a good way for researchers to familiarise themselves with the data (Riessman, 1993) and as providing a thorough understanding of the data (Braun &

Clarke, 2006).

2. Generating initial codes Extracts noted in Phase 1 were examined to see if it might be represented by a code (based on my impression of patterns). I generated a list of provisional codes (as many potential codes as possible) and linked these to excerpts in the transcripts. I then re-read the entire data corpus to see how the codes fitted and to look for further potential codes.

3. Searching for themes This phase involved considering how codes may be combined to form candidate themes.

4. Reviewing themes The process of analytic abstraction (Miles & Huberman, 1994) was used where themes with similar content were combined and therefore reduced using diagrammatic representation of relationships between themes and subthemes to form an

‘explanatory framework’ (Avis et al., 2007). When this phase was completed, a thematic map was created that was examined to check whether it accurately reflected the data corpus as a whole. This was also reviewed by a second Trainee EP to reduce the extent of researcher bias.

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Phase Description of the process

5. Defining and naming themes

I refined the names of my themes so that they captured the essence of the data and fitted with the overall analysis and research question.

6. Producing the report Selection of vivid, compelling extract examples, relating back of the analysis to the research question and literature. Produce a scholarly report of the analysis.

In order to demonstrate the thematic analysis process in the context of my research, a systematic illustration of the thematic process between Phase 2 and 6 is presented in Appendix 10. Additionally, an example of one transcript is presented in Appendix 11.

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CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS