Data analysis

In grounded theory, data collection and data analysis is an on-going and dialectic process. As indicated, NVivo was used for coding, without the intention of fixing labels to data. Rather, I followed a reflective approach to the analysis by constantly comparing categories and writing memos at the same time. To begin with, each interview was read thoroughly, and then the data were split into manageable pieces. Open coding required brainstorming conceptual labels for applying to data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The names of different codes sometimes changed when I reconsidered the ideas contained in each quote. For instance, there was a section of text I first coded as ‘teachers picked on him’, but then I renamed it ‘I could not fit in’ using an in-vivo code to emphasise the research participant’s point of view. According to

Corbin, participants sometimes provide a conceptualisation, ‘a term that they use to speak about something is so vivid and descriptive that the researcher borrows it as ‘in-vivo code’ (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p.160).

After open-coding, I created concepts ranging from lower- to higher-level. Higher-level concepts are called categories/themes, and categories demonstrate what a group of lower- level concepts indicate (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Coding required searching for the right words to describe conceptually what was indicated by the data. I used my intuition, previous knowledge about the field, and sometimes the literature to express what the text meant. For instance, low categories included ‘1-to-1 problem solving’; ‘student-centred approach’; and ‘time for self-development’. ‘Actual knowledge matters’ created a higher-level category

called ‘individual study pathways’, which became a part of a high-level category called ‘encouraging learning environment’. To link categories, axial coding was used, which is a

process of ‘crosscutting or relating concepts to each other’ (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p.195). This is an instinctive process, because our minds automatically make connections between

concepts that come from data. For example, ‘bad grades’ and ‘focus on achievement’, where ‘bad grades’ was the lesser concept and ‘focus on achievement’ was the broader concept. Of course, the connection between these was based on data provided by research participants. Accordingly, it can be understood that bad grades were caused by the wrong approach to the process of teaching and learning, or in other words a ‘focus on achievement’, which is a part of the high-level category ‘wrong teaching methods’.

As categories were linked, they were also elaborated ‘like putting together a series of interlinking blocks to build a pyramid’ (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p.199). There were times when theoretical comparisons were used to avoid uncertainty in classifying incidents. The specific incidents we use in the case of theoretical comparisons can be derived from the literature, and experience (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). For instance, when incidents related to school life were identified I used my teaching experience and sometimes literature, too: for example, in identifying the category student-centred approach: ‘... I got the support I needed ... From teachers, from Ulla (guidance counsellor) too ... It was normal, it was nice ...’. Towards the end of the analysis I filled in categories until the research reached the point of saturation, which is usually defined as the time when no new data emerge. However, saturation is more than just a matter of no new data, as it also denotes the ‘development of categories in terms of their properties and dimensions, including variation ...’ (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p.143).

During the process of analysis, I realised that all the interviews followed a similar chronological order, as with students’ experiences: first, from primary / lower secondary education; second, from upper secondary / second chance; and finally, life after second- chance education. To distinguish between nodes and the different stages of respondents’ careers, I applied numbers to the three main categories such as: before second chance

provision = 1, during second thereby creating an easier-to categories, I created three mind second chance) to integrate categories

Figure 3.1: Specific categories in my analysis focussing on e resulting in the choice of Second

The first mind map (see Figure in school and in their families,

chance provision = 2, and after second chance to-follow chronological order. After saturating mind maps (called Before second chance, Second

categories and themes. The three mind maps are

Specific categories in my analysis focussing on experiences Second Chance Education

Figure 3.1) illustrates the negative experiences of families, and the influences they specified that resulted

chance provision = 3, saturating and linking Second chance and After

are as follows:

xperiences and problems

of the young people resulted in their leaving

factors, which influence their of more general themes and confidence issues, which are education, and to different, family people’s well-being, learning

Figure 3.2: Specific categories in my analysis focussing on f influences of students in Second

The second mind map (see Figure second chance provisions, and students’ negative relationships

dedicated teachers and an encouraging

experiences are complex and multi-faceted, commonalities in their narratives. The first

linked to teachers and the methodology applied family-related problems. In addition, issues associated

difficulties and identity were recognised.

Specific categories in my analysis focussing on factors and

Second Chance that made them retrain in education

Figure 3.2) illustrates the young people’s positive and the different processes and agents that relationships with school. The most influential categories

encouraging learning environment, plus toler

there are a number category relates to applied in mainstream associated with young

positive education

positive experiences in that helped transform categories are encouraging, tolerant/diverse and

egalitarian values, diverse teaching environment. In addition, confidence are associated with the characteristics

Figure 3.3: Specific categories in my analysis focussing on S changing experience resulting

The third mind map (see Figure different influences they believed education and career guidance category. Second, the category accounts of how they experienced world of work, after different called ‘Criticism of society’,

importance of second chance provisions

teaching methods, and peer-to-peer support confidence issues – at the personal level – emerged characteristics and nature of second chance education.

pecific categories in my analysis focussing on Second resulting in better career options

Figure 3.3) illustrates young people’s perspectives believed had affected their future careers. First,

guidance applied in second chance provisions is deemed category of adulthood is significant, and reflects on

experienced adulthood, including the world of education different second chance provisions. Finally, the third

introduces former students’ critical voices

provisions and the significance of the role of

support in this secure emerged from data that education.

Chance as a life-

perspectives about the First, the role of career deemed an important on former students’ education and/or the third influential theme, that emphasise the

The findings of the theory-driven analysis are presented in Chapters 6, 7 and 8. As the theory is constructed from raw data, it represents an abstract interpretation of those raw data. Therefore, it is crucial to validate the theoretical scheme. There are different methods of validation: one is to go back and compare the scheme against the raw data, while another is to actually tell the story to respondents and ask them to say how well the scheme seems to cover their particular case (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). I decided to apply the second process of validation because I wanted to involve my research participants’ points of view in the analysis. In order to achieve this I invited three research participants, who had expressed keen interest in discussing my findings after being interviewed, to a meeting. There were three former students at the meeting, two of them teachers, and one a social worker. We discussed what I had concluded from the interviews, and they considered the findings to be relevant.

The use of grounded theory enabled me to analyse the interviews with former at-risk students/drop-outs and to generate or discover theory from first-hand data. This revealed what has helped students remain in school and find their path in education and/or the world of work. From this perspective, grounded theory was an efficient methodology because it proved ideal for exploring integral social relationships, the behaviour of the target group under investigation, and the contextual factors that affect individual’s lives (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).

Reflecting on data collection and analysis, it should be mentioned that both were a continuous process that inspired me during the fieldwork to discover relevant elements of the research topic. With limited time and resources available to me during the fieldwork, I was not able to strictly follow Corbin and Strauss’s approach to theoretical sampling (e.g. constant analysis which guides data collection continuously), but the main features of this approach were applied. Thus, theoretical sampling was used to generate further data to prove

or reduce categories. For instance, the set of questions slightly changed after the discovery of a new, emerging theme. After the first two interviews it became obvious that the causes of ESL are complex, therefore I should ask questions related to schooling experiences, peer effects and family background. In addition, this realisation made an impact on sampling as well, because I asked the Danish and the Hungarian school staff to put me in contact with former students who had had a variety of reasons for leaving school early. In both cases, we selected students during the fieldwork phase by considering new factors that emerged from the data analysis. There were cases when potential research participants politely refused to take part in my research, therefore we had short discussions with relevant staff members about selecting new participants to contact. In the process of analysis, the coding of data and creation of categories was challenging because I identified approximately 120 categories. To reduce this number, the names of categories were grouped by considering their meaning, which process indicated that there were overlapping categories with the same meaning. The most straightforward element of the analysis was the contextualisation of findings as a clear chronological storyline with three identifiable milestones traceable in each interview; namely, experiences before, during and after second chance education. This division of themes formed the basis of the three chapters about research findings (see Chapters 6, 7 and 8). I believe that a significant advantage of the grounded theory method is that basic social processes can be revealed in the data, which support the researcher’s discovery of new knowledge, as well as relations within the research topic (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).