Data analysis

As mentioned earlier, data collection and data analysis were conducted concurrently. Strauss (1987) noted that the major differences between grounded theory analysis modes and other qualitative analysis modes is the differences per stage in the combinations and permutations of the operations that are significant to the development of tightly integrated theory. The grounded theory analytic method is called coding. It is an intensive analysis and carefully integrated into both examination and interpretation of data. The purpose of coding is to conceptualise the data by analysing them and identifying patterns or events in them. In this study three steps were used for coding – open, axial and selective – as guided by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998). In the coding process, each step moves back and forth among three kinds of coding. In particular open coding and axial coding occur concurrently as outlined in Figure 3.2 below.

Open Coding

Axial Coding

Selective Coding

Microscopic Approach: line-by-line &

underline key words

Naming, labeling, coding

Concepts

Categories

Subcategories

Properties & dimensions

Conditions

Actions/interactions (strategies)

Consequences

Writing story line, drawing diagram, reviewing and sorting

through memoranda

Select core or central category

Refining the theory (Reviewing the scheme and trimming the theory)

Figure 3.2: The process of data analysis: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding (Adapted from Eaves, 2001)

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3.4.2.1 Open coding

The aim in open coding is to name (label, code), identify, categorise and compare phenomena according to their properties and dimensions (McCann & Clark, 2003a; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998). The process of open coding in field work was carried out as follows. Firstly, I used a microscopic approach, in which process each transcript would be read very carefully and the key words underlined. In the beginning of the analysis process, I applied line-by-line and sometimes word-by-word analysis in order to avoid neglecting important categories as suggested by Strauss (1987).

Secondly, the data were coded, after they had been broken down into discrete incidents, ideas, events, and acts, and then each was given a name or code to represent it. These codes were written in the right hand margin of the transcript. The sources of these codes come from either the researcher or from the words of participants and are called “in vivo codes” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) as shown in Table 3.1. Because theory is not discovered but rather is formulated then verified, simultaneously with line-by-line analysis, I made comparisons and asked questions (also applied in axial coding). For instance, I compared the data that emerged from the first interview with those from the next interview of the first participant. Then I also compared and contrasted her data with those of the other participants. After that I put the same code in two transcriptions as exemplified in Table 3.1 “HIV changed life” (in purple).

Thirdly, I identified the concepts and named them, grouping similar names or codes that shared common characteristics or related meaning, under more abstract codes called “concepts”. An example of open coding is illustrated in Table 3.1. There were two participants who had not suspected that they had HIV. One of them discovered her diagnosis of having HIV when she went to ANC clinic. Another one found out when he had a blood test done for HIV as part of preparing to get married. From those many codes was a group under the concept of “HIV/AIDS turned life upside down”. This name comes from an “in vivo code” (in pink).

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Table 3.1: Open coding of “HIV turned life upside down” concept

Excerpt from data Codes Concept

I think that what’s happening to me is really serious… very painful! HIV has changed my life… It (HIV) extremely changes my life. My hope changed. Not the same… Everything has changed either the society or even mind. Mind is the most important that in my mind always think that I’m different from others, normal people... Especially when I live with normal people, I keep thinking that I’m different from others. We are not the same (Pee Ning, 27 March, 2006).

Basically, I think everyone has hope… I also have hope but… this disease changes my life… It is extremely changed!! In the past I had a lot of hope…I hoped to help my mother. I hoped to work… All changed… Life turned upside down. In the moment of knowing my diagnosis, I felt absolutely lost. My hopes disappeared. I hoped to work but it shut down (Nong Wut, 24 April, 2006).

HIV changed life.

[How, why, when?]

Everything in her life changed.

HIV makes different from others.

HIV makes her (mind) feel different from others who are normal people.

[How, why, how often?]

HIV changed life.

HIV shut down hope.

HIV turned life upside down. HIV causes loss.

Loss of hope in working.

HIV turned life upside down.

By constantly moving between the data and the interpretations within the same transcript and across different transcripts several times, I gained more understanding and became more sensitive to the data. Strauss and Corbin (1990) also suggested that in order to understand more about the category (phenomenon), the researcher can use basic questions such as who, when, where, what, how, and why as illustrated in blue in Table 3.1. I found that comparisons were often suggested by asking questions that guided me to gather in-depth information. When asking a question, it is important not only to ask “what is going on?” in a descriptive sense, but also how this incident compares dimensionally along relevant properties with the others already identified. For instance, in the process of encountering distress most participants expressed the desire not to live. I found the participants perceived that “HIV/AIDS is a cause of death”. I asked “What if” “What would happen if they perceived it a different way?” and “What factors could make them perceive in a different way?”

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Fourthly, the categories were discovered. Categories are groups of concepts that are derived from data and stand for phenomena. Phenomena are important analytic ideas that emerge from data and they answer the question “What is going on here?” Categorising is the process of grouping concepts that seem to pertain to the same phenomena together (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). After I had identified some concepts, similar concepts were grouped together in order to develop categories.

Lastly, came the process of developing categories in terms of their properties and dimensions. Once a category had been identified, I began to develop it in terms of its specific properties and dimensions. “Properties are the general or specific characteristics or attributes of a category. Dimensions represent the location of a property along a continuum or range” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 117). Properties and dimensions are important because they form the basis for identifying relationships between categories and subcategories. For instance, with the category of struggling to survive I wanted to define what was meant by struggling to survive. And also I was interested in how these properties vary along their dimensions.

3.4.2.2 Axial coding

In axial coding, the data are put back together in a different way through categorising them and making links between a category and its subcategories guided by the paradigm model (Figure 3.3). The researcher begins to build up a dense texture of relationships around the “axis” of the category which is being focused on (Strauss, 1987). The basic components of the paradigm model are conditions, actions/interactions and consequences (Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Conditions are sets of eventsor happenings that create situations and explain why, how and when persons or groups respond on certain ways. Condition shiftand change over time and combine in various ways along different dimensions. The actions/interactions (strategies) are the strategies or routines individuals or groups use to handle situation or problems or events that arise under the conditions (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). In other words, strategies are purposeful acts that are taken to resolve a problem. Actions/interactions are represented by the questions “By whom?” and “How?” The last component of the paradigm is

consequence. This describes the outcome of actions/interactions. Consequences are represented by questions about what happens as a result of those actions/interactions. Figure 3.3 presents the example of axial coding of the struggling to survive category.

70 Actions/interactions Reactions & responses to manage it Conditions HIV/AIDS turned life upside down Consequences Being unwilling to live Subcategory Encountering distress Paradigm Model Category Conditions Overcoming distress Struggling to Survive Actions/interactions Consequences 1st_{subcategory 2}nd_subcategory

Figure 3.3: The relationship among conditions, actions/interactions (strategies), consequences, subcategory and category

Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggested that the way to build up a dense texture of relationship around the “axis” (in axial coding) of the category is to use four steps. First, the properties and the dimensions of a category are laid out as they emerge in the open coding process. Second, identifying the variety of conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences associated with a phenomenon. Third, relating a category to its subcategories. Last, looking for clues in the data that denote how major categories might relate to each other. The concepts that are shown as conditions, actions/interactions, and consequences in Figure 3.1 are concepts, properties, and dimensions of the category that emerged in the process of open coding. However, Strauss and Corbin contend that the important issue is not so much identifying and listing which conditions are causal, intervening, or contextual. Rather, the researcher

should focus on the complex interweaving of events (conditions) leading up to a problem to which persons are responding through some form of actions/interactions,

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Data analysis is non-linear. As mentioned earlier, open coding and axial coding occur simultaneously. So, while I identified the categories in terms of their properties and dimensions, I continued analysing in the axial coding process that is the process of relating subcategories to a category to form more precise and complete explanations about phenomena. In order to generate the category, I not only moved back and forth between data collection and analysis again and again and made sure that the categories were generated from the data, but also I returned to the literature review to stimulate my theoretical sensitivity (discussed in the following section) until theoretical saturation was reached (as shown in Figure 3.1). Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggested that when the researcher uses axial coding, s/he should answer the questions of why or how come, who, when, where, why, how and with what consequences and then s/he will be able to relate structures (why) and process (how) to capture the dynamic and evolving nature of events.

3.4.2.3 Selective coding

Selective coding is the last process of data analysis. Its aim is to identify a core category, establish links between the core category and other categories, integrate the categories along the dimensional level to form a theory, validate the statements of relationship among concepts, and fill in any categories in need of further refinement (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The core category presents the main theme of the research because it has analytic power to pull other categories together to form an explanatory whole and explain most of the variation among the data (Morse, 2001; Strauss, 1987, Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

From my experience, the process of selective coding requires additional critical thinking and consciousness and mindfulness as well as being time consuming. In this study in order to facilitate identification of the core category of Achieving Harmony of Mind

and integration of concepts, I applied many techniques: writing a story line, making use of diagrams, and reviewing and sorting of memoranda. I wrote many story lines in order to describe and explain the process of spiritual development in persons living with HIV/AIDS in the Thai context. For instance, I wrote the story of the “the rocky road journey”. I compared people living with HIV/AIDS to driving a car on a rocky road (having HIV/AIDS). The story line helped me to integrate each piece (categories,

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subcategories, concepts) of the jigsaw to put together in the story of Achieving Harmony of Mind.

I also used diagrams. In my opinion, drawing a diagram is effective in the process of selecting the core category because it presents clear relationships and directions among concepts, subcategories and categories. I applied the diagrams in order to show the development process of the mind, to show the flowing within each category and between categories. I always prepared blank paper and pencil to draw a diagram when I did data analysis. I not only drew a diagram to generate the core category, but also I drew diagrams of each participant to link the concept that I found from them. Then I merged the diagrams of each participant in order to see the big picture of the phenomenon. In the path of developing Achieving Harmony of Mind, I drew many diagrams. The following figure shows the diagram which I called “life is no longer dark”.

Facing life crisis

>Stigma & discrimination

>Insecurity and uncertainty in life

>Loss: connection, help, health

>Loss of self >Loss freedom

>Hopelessness _>Loss significant person

>Nearly loss life –committed suicide

Changing & developing

>Increasing inner strength

>Having a will to live and fight

>Having positive thinking & optimistic

>Understanding: tamjai, plong, ploy wang

>Accepting of having HIV & limitation

>Understanding the truth about life

Finding new meaning in life Altruism Having a will to live Having hope & make a plan for life

Gaining sense of self value Happiness & peace Living as normal Having a

simple life Having _{freedom in} life Support system

>Knowledge & information

>Friends

>Scholarly persons:-health volunteer, health profession

>Family & Self

>ARV drugs Connection >Self >Significant person >Supernatural beings >Others

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In addition, I reviewed using memoranda. Writing a theoretical memorandum is an important task in doing data analysis because it includes ideas that I generated during the process of data analysis. As some authors (e.g. Chenitz & Swanson, 1986) have said, writing memoranda is one part of writing the theory because they serve to store ideas generated about the data. While I did data analysis, my memoranda were written in several ways. I wrote them whatever I thought of something relevant to my hypotheses. I also wrote questions that came to my mind. I also wrote them as field notes. I wrote intensive memoranda when I started to do data analysis. I would take notes of how I found categories, how they related to each other. Moreover, sometimes, my memoranda were the early drafts of my research findings.

Memoranda are very useful data for building up a core category or theory (as described). Many times, when I had a problem such as categorising data, I not only

went back to raw data, discussed it with my supervisor, returned to the literature review, but also I often went back to read my memoranda. They helped me to recall what I was thinking in the past. What was the reason behind the concepts or categories? Why and how can I develop each category? Although I did not put each memorandum in a separate file, I put date, month, and year as well as the main concept or key words for each. Finally, I felt surprised when I found that I had more than 80 pages of memoranda.

After I discovered the core category; I reviewed the scheme for internal consistency and filled in the gaps in the developed categories (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Reviewing the scheme occurred both with the core category and each category. Filling in occurred until the final writing phase had begun. I did a thorough review of memoranda and raw data, and returned to the field. The ultimate criterion for determining to finalise the data- gathering process is theoretical saturation (as illustrated). Furthermore, sometimes, I found that I had an excess of data and some ideas did not fit the theory. So, I had to drop or regroup them – called trimming the theory. From the long process of data collection and data analysis that moved back and forth many times and involved many techniques, finally, the diagram presenting the core category of Achieving Harmony of Mind in the Thai context was found as presented in Figure 4.1 (see p. 83).

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