Data analysis and unit of analysis

The data from the interviews and from the documents were analysed using a hybrid approach of inductive and deductive thematic analysis. Organising

meanings into themes is a skill generally needed within qualitative research (Holloway and Todres, 2003) as it is a process of examining the data,

recognising patterns, and identifying important or relevany themes to be used as units of analysis (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006).

Braun and Clarke (2006) explain two approaches to thematic analysis: the inductive approach or data-driven, and the deductive approach or theory- driven. The inductive approach is when the themes emerge from the data itself not from a pre-constructed coding frame or any analytic preconceptions by the researcher. On the other hand, the deductive approach is when the themes emerge from a pre-constructed theory or some “a priori template of codes” (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006; p.83). However, it is sometimes difficult to draw a distinct line between the two approaches. For example, within the inductive approach, Braun and Clarke (2006) note that “researchers cannot free themselves of their theoretical and epistemological commitments, and data are not coded in an epistemological vacuum” (p.84). Therefore, a purely inductive thematic analysis may be ambitious or challenging.

The approach adopted for thematic data analysis in this study was a hybrid approach, similar to the approach adopted in Fereday and Muir-Cochrane (2006) who used a hybrid, inductive-deductive approach to interpret qualitative data for a doctoral study on the role of performance feedback in the self-

assessment of nursing practice. This hybrid approach guided the inferential process undertaken in the analysis which allowed the initial principles of FUAD to guide the coding process while at the same time allowing any other data- driven codes to emerge (Figure 4.3). The formulation and synthesis of codes

into themes, both initial theory-driven themes (the 6 initial FUAD principles) as well as the data-driven themes (enablers and inhibitors), came as a result of reading and re-reading the data. Consequently, a refined FUAD principles framework emerged with one new principle, authenticity (FUAD 7), added to the framework and new sub-themes to extend a pre-constructed FUAD principle.

The analysis was non-linear and reiterative as data collection and analysis happened concurrently. Each data set, of assignment, interview transcript and relevant documents, were read, re-read, coded, analysed and resulted in refined codes which in turn were used with the next assignment interview and documents. Therefore, the coding and analysis of each data set grew as analysis progressed. Generally speaking, the process of analysis in this study followed Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases of thematic analysis (Table Figure 4.3. Coding for thematic analysis

4.3), though, as mentioned, in a rather non-linear way.

Table 4.3. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) phases of thematic analysis Phase 1: Familiarising yourself with the data

There were four stages of familiarisation with each data set of an assignment. The first stage started before the interview as the assignment documents were examined and additional questions about some elements in the assignment were noted down. The interview conversation functioned as a second, more detailed look at the assignment. Transcribing the interview was the third stage of familiarisation with the data. Then came the first overall reading of the transcript while noting down some codes.

Phase 2: Gathering initial codes

The initial codes were gathered from the literature search, which led to the formation of the FUAD conceptual framework. The very initial codes were based on the 6 initial themes derived from the principles of FUAD. The assignment documents and interviews were examined and coded. Examples included, but were not exclusive to, aspects such as whether the instructions were generic enough to allow for student choice and creativity, whether there was an articulation of what options students had or whether the success

criteria were fixed, flexible or co-constructed. Therefore, codes such as ‘instructions,’ ‘choice’ and ‘success criteria’ were among the initial codes. Additionally, two more initial codes, ‘enabler’ and inhibitor,’ were added due to the fact that this was an evaluation research, and investigating enablers and inhibitors was part of the evaluation and could give important insights to the refinement of the FUAD framework as an evaluation tool.

Phase 3: Searching for themes

After looking at the coded data, 15 new sub-codes emerged. For example, upon examining the data coded ‘choice,’ it was clear that choice was not only relevant to the type of final product but also to the choice of resources, tools, and procedures as well. The six initial themes of the framework expanded and two additional themes emerged - authenticity and support.

Phase 4: Reviewing themes

In this phase, the themes were reviewed in relation to the entire data, to consider the validity of individual themes. Upon synthesising the information relevant to each code, and reviewing how they related to the themes, both initial and emergent, some new themes were combined together. For example, the initial theme of providing technology evolved to providing technology, providing digital literacy support and other (non-digital) skills support.

Phase 5: Defining and naming themes

This is the stage where themes get defined and refined by looking at the broader meaning, examining proposed merging of codes and what new theme should be confirmed as a new FUAD principle. By the end of this stage, the

demarcation of themes became clearer in terms of the expansion of initial FUAD principles and the addition of a new principle. For example, the

emerging codes under the theme of ‘Access to technology’ included access to support (digital literacy support and other, non-digital, skills support). This led to expanding the theme of ‘providing access to technology’ to ‘providing access to technology and any underlying skills needed for that particular assignment’. This, in turn, led to the refinement of the sixth FUAD principle, changing it from ‘access to technology’ to ‘access to technology and skills support’.

Phase 6: Producing the report

The final report is the written account of the data story. In this account, the merit and reliability of the data story need to be evident through data extracts and coherent and convincing articulation of the arguments that demonstrate the prevalence of the themes.

In this research, the interview transcripts were coded based on the pre-set codes and the emergent codes (Figure 4.3), then quotes were collected together for each code. However, in order to offer a coherent narrative that tells the story of the data, some quotes were selected and presented verbatim, because they gave a representative view, or a clear and concise point, while others, initially more lengthy, were summarised and narrated (with reference to the interviewee) as part of the argument.

As mentioned earlier, the phases were not followed in a linear way; rather, a back-and-forth movement between the phases would be a better description.