Forty-one interviews were recorded and transcribed. Handwritten notes from each interview were added to the interview transcripts. Each interview was approximately 40 pages in length.
Interviews conducted during the first case study were transcribed by the researcher (three stakeholder and three manager interviews). This was a useful exercise, providing the researcher with a deep understanding of the data. A decision was made to engage a professional transcription company to transcribe further interviews. One audio-taped interview was transcribed by both the researcher and the transcription company, and transcripts compared, to ensure the professional transcription reflects an accurate record of the interviews.
Interview transcriptions were produced as Word documents, typed, double-spaced and paginated.
Within each NVivo case-study database, ‘stakeholder’ and ‘manager’ categories were created.
Within each ‘stakeholder’ and ‘manager’ category, separate files were created for interview transcripts, documents, archival records and memos. Interview transcripts, documents, archival records and memos were up-loaded into NVivo and stored in the appropriate case study database.
3.5.1. Two prism coding structure
In this study data was examined through two prisms: listening competency and participatory communication. Data from each case was examined within the framework of constructs from listening competency literature; and re-examined within the framework of constructs from participatory communication literature. During the study design phase, an a priori coding scheme was designed, derived from listening competency and participatory communication literature.
The a priori coding scheme was added to each NVivo case-study database (Appendix 3.1.).
3.5.1.1. Listening competency coding
To examine interview transcripts through constructs from listening competency literature, interview transcripts were read line by line and sections of the document, or individual words, were highlighted and coded into the corresponding NVivo node within the relevant ‘stakeholder’
or ‘manager’ category.
In addition to a priori coding an inductive coding approach was taken to allow categories to emerge from the interview transcripts. Inductive coding is associated with the ‘grounded’
approach (Corbin & Strauss, as cited in Yin, 2009, p.129). This study does not take a grounded approach, however the inductive approach of post-defined coding, described as a posteriori coding, was undertaken (Schwandt, 1997). Interview transcripts were re-read, line by line and recurring themes, statements or observations were grouped into newly-created categories.
The new categories were reviewed as coding continued and slightly more abstract categories attributed to several observations. At this point, a new node, termed a free-node in NVivo, was created and named to describe the category. Recurring themes and statements that emerged but did not immediately belong in an existing node, were developed as free–nodes, and revisited frequently to determine whether a new node was required or whether the data gathered within that free-node should be re-coded elsewhere.
As coding advanced nodes that had been defined, but which contained no field materials were abolished. Other tree-nodes, branch-nodes or sub-nodes that had become too cumbersome were sub-divided. For example, one sub-node that emerged during a posteriori coding, named
‘organisation procedures’, became difficult to manage, with too many segments coded into the sub-node. A revision of data captured within ‘appropriate organisation procedures’ resulted in the creation of four sub-divisions, named ‘written procedures’, ‘social procedures’, ‘venue & set-up’, and ‘general procedures’ (Table 3.1.).
Example of A Priori Coding
Participatory communication
validity claims challenged speech conditions violated
appropriate sincerity truth comprehension symmetrical communication
free to raise any proposition
full & equal treatment of all issues Tree-node
Branch-nodes
Sub-nodes
Table 3.1. Extract from listening competency coding
Gradually, through constant re-reading of interview transcripts and field notes, a hierarchical coding structure of tree nodes, with associated branch nodes, sub-nodes and sub-divisions was formed.
A set of nodes, based on the conceptual framework of service quality, was developed (Zeithaml et al, 1990). Each interview transcript was read again and sections of the document, or words, compatible with service quality gaps, were coded. Field notes, documents and archival records were examined and relevant segments coded into service quality nodes.
The current study used a combination of ‘number of accounts’ and ‘descriptive’ terms to provide descriptive validity to any claims involving frequency of a phenomenon. Maxwell (2002) states any claim that a certain phenomenon is frequent, typical, or rare in a specific situation, is subject to threats to descriptive validity (p.47). Scholars advocate the use of simple counts of things to support claims that are implicitly quantitative (Becker, as cited in Maxwell, 2002; Huberman &
Miles, 1994; Silverman, 2006). To address descriptive validity in this study, Microsoft Word and Excel documents based on the conceptual framework were developed, to allow examination, interpretation and analysis of different combinations of data (Appendices 3.6., 3.7., 3.8., and 3.9.).
Although the process of converting words to numbers is a recognised method of organising data in qualitative research, it is important to keep words and any associated numbers together throughout the analysis (Huberman & Miles, 1994). This process was followed during the study.
For example, data coded into sub-nodes within the branch-nodes ‘qualities expected’ and
‘qualities perceived’, was coded into both Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and Word documents, for analysis of both ‘number of accounts’ and ‘descriptive terms’ (Appendix 3.7.).
3.5.1.2. Participatory communication coding
Jacobson’s (2007a; 2007b) model of participatory communication provides an additional descriptive framework to interpret data concerned with perceptions of listening competency. To examine interview transcripts through the prism of participatory communication, interview transcripts from each case study were re-read, line by line, and sections or words highlighted and coded into the corresponding NVivo node within the relevant ‘stakeholder’ or ‘manager’ category (Table 3.2.).
As in the process described earlier for listening competency coding, a priori and a posteriori coding was undertaken during participatory communication coding. Through continual re-reading of the interview transcripts and field notes, a hierarchical coding structure of participatory communication tree-nodes, with associated branch-nodes, sub-nodes and sub-divisions formed.
Listening competency
Table 3.2. Extract from participatory communication coding